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Ethics
, deel 1
0 Ethics
Jaar 1 (universiteit)
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1. The responsibility of engineers; Role responsibility = The responsibility that is based on the role one has or plays in a certain situation. Moral responsibility = Responsibility that is based on moral obligations, moral norms and moral duties. Professional responsibility = The responsibility that is based on one’s role as professional in as far it stays within the limits what is morally allowed. Passive responsibility = Backward looking responsibility, relevant after something undesirable occurred. Specific forms are accountability, blameworthiness, and liability. Accountability = (=verantwoordelijkheid) Responsibility in the sense of being held to account for, or justify one’s actions towards others. Blameworthiness = Responsibility in the sense of being a proper target of blame for one’s actions or the consequences of one’s actions. In order for someone to be blameworthy (=afkeurenswaardig), usually the following conditions need to apply: wrong-doing, causal contribution, forseeability, and freedom. Active responsibility = Responsibility before something has happened referring to a duty or task to care for certain state-of-affairs or persons. Ideals = (=idealen) Strivings which are particularly motivating and inspiring for the person having them, and which aim at achieving an optimum or maximum. Professional ideals = Ideals that are closely allied to a profession or can only be aspired to be carrying out the profession. Technological enthusiasm = The ideal of wanting to develop new technological possibilities and taking up technological challenges. Effectiveness = (=effectiviteit) The extent to which an established goal is achieved. Efficiency = (=rendement) The ratio between the goal achieved and the effort required. Separatism = The notion that scientists and engineers should apply the technical inputs, but appropriate management and political organs should make the value decisions. Tripartite model = A model that maintains that engineers can only be held responsible for the design of products and not for wider social consequences or concerns. In the pripartiate model three segments are distinguished: the politicians or managers, engineers and users. “Hired gun” = Someone who is willing to carry out any task or assignment from his employer without moral objections. Technocracy = Government of experts Paternalism = The making of (moral) descisions for others on the assumption that one knows better what is good for them than those others themselves. Whistle-blowing = The disclosure of certain abuses in a company by an employee in which he or she is employed, without the consent of his superiors, and in order to remedy these abuses and to warn the public about these abuses. Actor = Any person or group that can make a decision how to act and that can act on that decision. Users = People who use a technology and who formulate certain wishes or requirements for the functioning of a technology. Regulators = Organizations who formulate rules or regulations that engineering products have to meet. Interests = Thins actors strive for because they are beneficial or advantageous for them. Stakeholders = Actors that have an interest (a stake) in the development of a technology. Technology Assessment (TA) = Systematic method for exploring future technology developments and assessing their potential societal consequences. Collingridge dilemma = This dilemma refers to a double-bind problem to control the direction of technological development. On the one hand, it is often not possible to predict the consequences of new technologies already in early phases of development. On the other hand, once the negative consequences materialize it often has become very difficult to change the direction of technological development. Constructive Technology Assessment (CTA) = Approach to TA in which TA-like efforts are carried out parallel to the process of technological development and are fed back to the development and design process. 2. Codes of conduct; Codes of conduct = A code in which organizations lay down guidelines for responsible behavior of their members. Professional code = Code of conduct that is formulated by a professional association. Corporate code = Code of conduct that is formulated by a company. Aspirational code = A code that expresses the moral values of a profession or company. Advisory codes = A code of conduct that has the objective to help individual professionals or employees to exercise moral judgments in concrete situations. Disciplinary codes = A code that has the objective to achieve that the behavior of all professionals or employees meets certain values and norms. Integrity = (=integriteit) Living by one’s own values, norms and commitments. Honesty = Telling what one has good reasons to believe to be true and disclosing all relevant information. Conflict of interest = The situation in which one has an interest (personal or professional) that, when pursued, can conflict with meeting one’s professional obligations to an employer or to other clients. Stakeholder principles = Principles that guide the relationship between a company and its stakeholders. Window-dressing = Presenting a favorable impression that is not based on the actual facts. Uncritical loyalty = Placing the interests of the employer, as the employer defines those interests, above any other considerations. Critical loyalty = Giving due regard to the interest of the employer, insofar as this is possible within the constraints of the employee’s personal and professional ethics. Confidentially duties = (=geheimhoudingsplicht) Duties on employees to keep silent certain information. External auditing = Assessing of a company in terms of its code of conduct by an external organization. Global code of conduct = A code of conduct that is believed to apply worldwide. Professional autonomy = The ideal that individual professionals achieve themselves moral conclusions by reasoning clearly and carefully. 3. Normative ethics; Ethics = The systematic reflection on morality. Morality = The totality of opinions, decisions, and actions with which people express, individually or collectively, what they think is good or right. Descriptive ethics = The branch of ethics that describes existing morality, including customs and habits, opinions about good and evil, responsible and irresponsible behavior, and acceptable and unacceptable action. Normative ethics = The branch of ethics that judges morality and tries to formulate normative recommendations about how to act or live. Descriptive judgment = A judgment that describes what is actually the case (the present), what was the case (the past), or what will be the case (the future). Normative judgment = Judgment about whether a something is good or bad, desirable or undesirable, right or wrong. Values = (=waarden) Lasting convictions or matters that people feel should be strived for in general and not just for themselves to be able to lead a good life or to realize a just society. Intrinsic value = Value in and of itself. Examples are: justice, love, freedom… Instrumental value = Something that is valuable in as far as it is a means to, or contributes to something else that is intrinsically good or valuable. Norms = (=normen) Rules that prescribe what actions are required, permitted, or forbidden. Virtues = (=deugden) A certain type of human characteristics or qualities. Normative relativism = An ethical theory that argues that all moral points of view (all values, norms and virtues) are equally valid. Universalism = An ethical theory that states that there is a system of norms and values that is universally applicable to everyone, independent of time, place or culture. Absolutism = A rigid form of universalism in which no exceptions to rules are possible. Consequentialism = The class of ethical theories which hold that the consequences of actions are central to the moral judgment of those actions. Utilitarianism = A type of consequentialism based on the utility principle. In utilitarianism, actions are judged by the amount of pleasure and pain they bring about. The action that brings the greatest happiness for the greatest number should be chosen. Hedonism = The idea that pleasure is the only thing that is good in itself and to which all other things are instrumental. Utility principle = The principle that one should chose actions that result in the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Moral balance sheet = A balance sheet in which the costs and benefits (pleasures and pains) for each possible action are weighed against each other. Freedom principle = The moral principle that everyone is free to strive for his own pleasure, as long as they do not deny or hinder the pleasure of others. No harm principle = The principle that one is free to do what one wishes, as long as no harm is done to others. Also known as the freedom principle. Distributive justice = The value of having a just distribution of certain important goods, like income, happiness, and career. Marginal utility = The additional utility that is generated by an increase in a good or service (income for example). Act utilitarianism = The traditional approach to utilitarianism in which the rightness of actions is judged by the (expected) consequences of these actions. Rule utilitarianism = A variant of utilitarianism that judges actions by judging the consequences of the rules on which these actions are based. These rules, rather than the actions themselves, should maximize ulility. Duty ethics = Also known as deontological ethics. The class of approaches in ethics in which an action is considered morally right if it is in agreement with a certain moral rule (law, norm, or principle). Good will = A central notion in Kantian ethics. According to Kant, we can speak of good will if our actions are led by the categorical imperative. Kant believes that the good will is the only thing that is unconditionally good. Hypothetical norm = A condition norm, that is, a norm which only applies under certain circumstances, usually of the form ‘If you want X do Y’. Categorical imperative = A universal principle of the form ‘do A’ which is the foundation of all moral judgments in Kant’s view. Universality principle = First formulation of the categorical imperative: Act only on that maxim which you can at the same time will that is should become a universal law. Equality postulate = The prescription to threat persons as equals, that is, with equal concern and respect. Reciprocity principle = Second formulation of the categorical imperative: Act as to threat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of any other, in every case as an end, never as means only. Prima facie norms = Prima facie norms are the applicable norms, unless they are overruled by other more important norms that become evident when we take everything into consideration. Moral autonomy = The view that a person himself should determine what is morally right through reasoning. Virtue ethics = An ethical theory that focuses on the nature of the acting person. This theory indicates which good or desirable characteristics people should have or develop to be moral. The good life = The highest good or eudaimonia: a state of being in which one realizes one’s uniquely human potential. According to Aristotle, the good life is the final goal of human action. Practical wisdom = The intellectual virtue that enables one to make the right choice for action. It consists in the ability to choose the right mean between two vices. Care ethics = An ethical theory that emphasizes the importance of relationships, and which holds that the development of morals does not come about by learning general moral principles. 5. Designing morality; Ill-structured problem = A problem that has no definitive formulation of the problem, may embody inconsistent problem formulations, and can only be defined during the process of solving the problem. Ethical cycle = A tool in structuring and improving moral decisions by making a systematic and thorough analysis of the moral problem, which helps to come to a moral judgment and to justify the final decision in moral terms. Moral problem = Problem in which two or more positive moral values or norms cannot be fully realized at the same time. Moral dilemmas = A moral problem with the crucial feature that the agent has only two (or a limited number of) options for action and that whatever he chooses he will commit a moral wrong. Stakeholders = Actors that have an interest (“a stake”) in the development of a technology. Black-and-white-strategy = A strategy for action in which only two options for actions are considered: doing the action or not. Strategy of cooperation = The action strategy that is directed at finding alternatives that can help to solve a moral problem by consulting other stakeholders. Intuitivist framework = The ethical framework in which options for action are evaluated on basis of one’s view about what is intuitively most acceptable and that formulates arguments for this statement. Common sense method = The method that weighs the available options for actions in the light of the relevant values. Wide reflective equilibrium = Approach that aims at making coherent three types of moral beliefs: 1) considered moral judgments; 2) moral principles; and 3) background theories. Also the resulting coherent set of moral beliefs is often called a wide reflective equilibrium. Moral deliberation = An extensive and careful consideration or discussion of moral arguments and reasons for and against certain actions. Overlapping consensus = An agreement on the level of moral judgments, while there may be disagreement on the level of moral principles and background theories. Each of the participants should be able to justify the overlapping consensus in terms of his or her own wide reflective equilibrium. 7. Designing morality; Technological mediation = The phenomenon that when technologies fulfill their functions, they also help to shape the actions and perceptions of their users. Mediation of perception = The influence or artifacts on human perception, that is, the sensory relationship with reality. Structure of amplification and reduction = The fact that mediating technologies amplify specific aspects of (the perception of) reality while reducing other aspects. Multistability = The phenomenon that a technology can have several stabilities, depending on the way it is embedded in a use context. Mediation of action = The influence of artifacts on human action. Script = A prescription how to act that is built (designed) into an artifact. Invitation-inhibition structure = The fact that mediating technology invited specific actions, while other actions are inhibited. Moralization of technology = The deliberate development of technologies in order to shape moral action and decision-making. Anticipation mediation by imagination = Trying to imagine the ways technology-in-design could be used. This insight is then used to deliberately shape user operations and interpretations. 8. Ethical aspects of technical risks; Hazard = (=risico) Possible damage or otherwise undesirable effect. Risk = A risk is a specification of a hazard. The most often used definition of risk is the product of the probability of an undesirable event and the effect of that event. Safety = The condition that refers to a situation in which the risks have been reduced as far as reasonably feasible and desirable. Acceptable risk = A risk that is morally acceptable. The following considerations are relevant for deciding whether a risk is morally acceptable: 1) the degree of informed consent with the risk, 2) the degree to which the benefits of a risky activity weigh up against the disadvantages and risks, 3) the availability of alternatives with a lower risk, and 4) the degree to which risks and advantages are justly distributed. Uncertainty = (=onzekerheid) A lack of knowledge. Refers to situations in which we know the type of consequences, but cannot meaningfully attribute probabilities to the occurrence of such consequences. Ignorance = (=onwetendheid) Lack of knowledge. Refers to the situation in which we do not know what we don’t know. Ambiguity = (=dubbelzinnigheid) The property that different interpretations or meanings can be given to a term. Inherent safe design = An approach to safe design that avoids hazards instead of coping with them, for example by replacing substances, mechanisms and reactions that are hazardous by less hazardous ones. Safety factor = A factor or ratio by which by which an installation is made safer than is needed to withstand either the expected or the maximum (expected) load. Negative feedback mechanism = A mechanism that if a device fails or an operator loses control assures that the (dangerous) device shuts down. Multiple independent safety barriers = A chain or safety barriers that operate independently of each other so that if one fails the others do not necessarily also fail. Risk management = A systematic investigation in which the risks of a technology of an activity are mapped and expressed quantitatively in a certain risk measure. Failure mode = Series of events that may lead to the failure of an installation. Event tree = Tree of events in which one starts with a certain event and considers what events will follow. Fault tree = Tree of events in which we move backwards from an unwanted event (fault) to the events that could lead to the undesirable event. Animal tests = Tests for determining dose-response relationships by exposing animals to various dosages and assessing their response. Epidemiological research = Research in which population data is used to find out what the relationship is between the occurrence of certain diseases or certain mental deviations and certain factors that may cause the deviations. Models for dose-response relationships = Models that presuppose or predict a certain relationship between dose and response. Type I error = The mistake of assuming that a scientific statement is true while it actually is false. Type II error = The mistake of assuming that a scientific statement is false while it is actually true. Informed consent = Principle that states that activities (experiments, risks) are acceptable if people gave freely consented to them after being fully informed about the (potential) risks and benefits of these activities. Risk-cost-benefit analysis = This is a variant of regular cost-benefit analysis. The social costs for risk reduction are weighed against the social benefits offered by risk reduction, so achieving an optimal level of risk in which the social benefits are highest. Best available technology = As an approach to acceptable risk (or acceptable environmental emissions), best available technology refers to an approach that does not prescribe a specific technology but uses the best available technological alternative as yardstick for what is acceptable. Personal risks = Risk that only affect an individual and not a collective. For example, the risk of smoking. The relevant distinction with collective risk is whether the individual can stop or avert the risks for him or her individually. We can individually decide not to smoke but cannot individually prevent flooding for ourselves. Collective risks = Risks that affect a collective of people and not just individuals, like the risks of flooding. Risk communicators = Specialists that inform, or advise how to inform, the public about risks and hazards. Precautionary principle = Principle that prescribes how to deal with threats that are uncertain and cannot be scientifically established. In it most general form the precautionary principle has the following general format: 1) a threat which is 2) uncertain, then 3) some kind of action 4) is mandatory. This definition has four dimensions: 1) the threat dimension, 2) the uncertainty dimension, 3) the action dimension, and 4) the prescription dimension. Societal experiments = We speak of the introduction of new technology in society as a societal experiment if the (final) testing of possible hazards and risks of a technology and its functioning take place by the actual implementation of a technology in society. Hypothetical consent = Hypothetical consent refers to a form of informed consent in which people do not actually consent to something but are hypothetically supposed to consent if certain conditions are met, for example that it would be rational for them to consent or in their own interest. 9. The distribution of responsibility in engineering; Collective responsibility = The responsibility of a collective of people. Problem of many hands = The occurrence of the situation in which the collective can reasonably be held morally responsible for an outcome, while none of the individuals can be reasonably be held responsible for that outcome. Distribution of responsibility = The ascription or apportioning of (individual) responsibilities to various actors. Moral fairness requirement = The requirement that a distribution of responsibility should be fair (just). In case of passive responsibility, this can be interpreted as that a person should only be held responsible if that person can be reasonably held responsible according the following conditions: wrong-doing, causal contribution, foreseeability, and freedom of action. In terms of active responsibility it can be interpreted as implying that persons should only be allocated responsibilities that they can live by. Effectiveness requirement = The moral requirement that states that responsibility should be so distributed that the distribution has the best consequences, that is, is effective in preventing harm (and in achieving positive consequences). Liability = Legal responsibility, backward-looking responsibility according to the law. Usually related to the obligation to pay a fine or repair or repay damages. Regulation = A legal tool that can forbid the development, production, or use of certain technological products, but more often it formulates a set of the boundary conditions for the design, production, and use of technologies. Negligence = Not living by certain duties. Negligence is often a main condition for legal liability. In order to show negligence for the law, usually proof must be given of a duty owed, a breach of that duty, an injury or damage, and a causal connection between breach and the injury or damage. Duty of care = The legal obligation to adhere to a reasonable standard of care when performing any acts that could foreseeable harm others. Strict liability = A form of liability that does not require the defendant to be negligent. Product liability = Liability of manufacturers for defects in a product, without the need to proof that those manufacturers acted negligently. Development risks = In the context of product liability. Risks that could not have been foreseen given the state of scientific and technical knowledge at the time the product was put into circulation. Corporate liability = Liability of a company (corporation) when it is treated as a legal person. Limited liability = The principle that the liability of shareholders for the corporation’s debts and obligations is limited to the value of their shares. Hierarchical responsibility model = The model in which only the organization’s top level of personnel is held responsible for the actions of (people in) the organization. Collective responsibility model = The model in which every member of a collective body is held responsible for the actions of the other members of that same collective body (and for the responsibility of the collective). Individual responsibility model = The model in which each individual is held responsible insofar as he or she meets the conditions for individual responsibility.
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