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Arctische en Antarctische Studies
› 4 Tentamenstof
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Arctische en Antarctische Studies
, deel 1A
4 Tentamenstof
Jaar 3 (universiteit)
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Where do the kittiwake and northern fulmar live?=these two seabirds are found around the coasts of the North Pacific and North Atlantic Ocean The kittiwak has several characteristics which makes it an expert in building nests on cliffs, give them=strong and markedly curved claws and toe muscles to aid gripping, very useful for landing on the cliff ledges + elaborate nests built by both female and male, use mud and vegetation to form the base of the nest, solidly constructed by prolonged trampling of the nesting material to compact it, the nests have deep cups so the eggs won't fall out The kittiwake has developed techniques to keep predators away from the nest, what?=it has a special twisting technique of fighting which involves grapsing the back of the opponent and twisting, objects that could make the nest more visible for predators like egg shells are thrown over the edge of the nest, to keep the little ones save, at least one of the adult kittiwake guard defends the nes during most of the daylight hours The behaviour of the young kittiwake is also adapted to its life on a small ledge, what?=they do not run from the nest when threatened, instead they crouch and bury their heads against the rock face, the chicks instinctively know to stay still so they won't fall from their cliff-side nests. What posture do the kittiwake chicks have to avoid falling from their cliff-side nests?=the chicks face towards the cliff and avoid facing out-over What colour do the kittiwake chicks have?=white, remarkable because they do not require camouflage The northern fullmar has a very special and a bit smelly defense mechanism, what?=the northern fulmar produces high lipid and high energy content stomach oils from the prey they consume, these stomach oils are used both as a food source for chicks as well as for defensive purposes Give some specifics about the defensive mechanism of the northern fulmar=the oils are produced by both adults and chicks from prey items in a specific organ, the proventriculus or glandular stomach, in this, the oil fraction of an already partially digested prey is concentrated, subsequently the oil fraction is retained a little longer due to slower rates of gastric emptying, this enables the oil to be accumulated in the proventriculus What does the oil of the northern fulmar consist of?=the composition consist of a mixture of hydrocarbons, wax esters, alcohols, cholesterols and free fatty acids. How is the defensive role of the stomach oil of the northern fulmar developed=it is thought to be a secondary development from the widespread habit among frightened seabirds of ejecting their stomach contents to light their bodies for escape. What are the effects of the oil mechanism of the northern fulmar=can be very dangerous for intruders, the oil-laden plumage of the intruder will render it unable to fly, decrease plumage water repellency or even decrease its ability to thermo-regulate properly, possibly even leading to death by hypothermia or drowning. How does the fulmar wash of its own oil?=it is very able to remove the oil by bathing in water or snow Give the three protection techniques of the kittiwake=building nest on very tiny cliff ledges, the fighting technique (twisting technique) and behaviour of the young (crouch and bury their face) Summary of the kittiwake and fulmar=the two seabirds live in similar areas and look quite a like, they have found two strikingly different but very effective ways to protect themselves... Where does the lesser snow geese breed?=on arctic tundra and marshes in north-east siberia, alaska and arctic canada Where does the lesser snow geese winter?=on marshes and agricultural land in the western and southern united states and mexico. Where does the greater snow nests?=often nests in higher and drier tundra in eastern arctic Canada and Greenland Where does the greater snow winter?=in saltwater habitats along the atlantic coast of the united states Is there an increase or decrease in greater and lesser snow?=increase, tremendously over the past half century, 3000 beginning twentieth century and 880,166 in 2010-2015, lesser snow even more striking with more than 20 million adults from 1999 to 2006 What are the causes of overpopulation of the (Mid-continent) lesser snow goose in north America?=the expansion of agricultural areas and increased yields associated with the application of nitrogen-based fertilizers, the second is the establishment of reguges on the migration routes in the U.S. between 1930-1970 which protected birds from harvest, third is a decline in the harvest rate since 1970 (the case for the mississippi and central flyways and canada), 300,000-700,000 insufficient to contain the population growth, the fourth and last cause is climatic change and a shift in the nesting location of many birds, more north;since the 1940s 99% of all birds breds at sites north of 60 degrees NB What are the consequenses of overpopulation?= grazing of intertidal lawns in summer, grubbing of intertidal marsh in early spring › effectively depleted a lot of the availlable marsh, grubbing an eventually lead to the exposure of sediment in intertidal aresvand to the exposure of peat in the supratidal zones.. What is the Hudson Bay Project?=(Hudson Bay Projects, extensive snow geese research onto the effects of grazing on intertidal and supratidal vegetation in coastal ares of the Hudson Bay lowlands) What is the rate of vegetation grubbing of the snow geese=1 m2 per hour (too fast for the vegation to recover The loss of vegetation and the deterioriation in the condition of coastal habitats (Hudson Bay project, snow geese) have affected other taxa as well, give an example=Savannah sparrows (Passerculus sandwichensis); They nest at hte base of live willws where there is grass for nest construction and concealment, there is a 63 percent decline in vegative cover (25 years), coincides (probably) with a decline of 77 percent in the number of nesting pairs During the 1990s, North American waterfowl managers detected extraordinary increases in populations of lesser snow geese, Batt et all however give 6 interaction steps that should lead to better conservation and management of the lesser snow geese and resolves conflicts in the NA snow goose management, give the steps..=1. use scientifically based wildlife management programs (Arctic Goose Joint Venture already est. in 1989 to further the scientific understanding and management of north america's geese (e.g. importance of biological data for remote northern nesting goose population fir which the logistics and costs of study were difficult), 2. communicate 3. implement management 4. monitor and adapt 5. involve stakeholders 6. develop mangement resolve What is the Arctic Goose Habitat Working Group and what did it do?=they are interested in the snow goose's habitat, led to a better involvement of stakeholders (e.g. research scientists), waterfowl managers and non-government conservartion organizations), also management resolve has been developed, administrative flyways are now informed by their representative on the original Working Group or by one of the participants in the stakeholders by their representative on the original working group or by one of the participants in the stakeholders committee. subsequently this resulted in resolutions from each administrative flyway in which they endorsed the recommendation contained in the arctic ecosystems in peril report Conclusion mid-continent lesser snow geese=it is an ongoing problem of international significance, although the causes of overpopulation have been identified, we need to gain more insight into the consequences of overpopulation so that we can further conretize the conservation and management of this wonderful species. What are sandpipers and where are they found?=a diverse family of wading birds that are found on shores and in wetlands all over the world Where do the sandeling and puprple sandpiper breed?=they both breed on the arctic tundra Where do the sanderling and purple sandpiper winter?=they spend the winter along shorelines to the south, however.. a massive difference in distribution Where does the sanderling forages and how?=it is foraging on sandy beaches and mudflats. It is a strong runner, and it uses this skill to always stay just ahead of the tide, when the water retreats they quickly follow it to eat the washed up plankton and detritus, also they probe the wet sand with their beaks at random, finding molluscs and crustaceans mainly by touch. Where exactly does the sanderling breed?=exclusively in the high arctic, mainky on the tundra of Greenland, Svalbard and northern Canada, during this period they feed on insects. Where does the purple sandpiper nests?=it nest in a similar way to the sanderling, however, its southern nesting border lies farther south and extends to the Scandinavian peninsula and the northern Russian interior. How does the purple differ from the sanderling in its choice of habitat?=whereas the sanderling prefers mudflats and beaches, the purple sandpiper is more at home on rocky shores with strong tides How does the purple sandpiper differ from the sanderling in its feeding behaviour?= the sandpiper feed on small crabs and molluscs which they catch by sight not by touch Which population is bigger, the sandpiper or the sanderling?=the sanderling is a very common species with an estimated global population of 700,000 individuals. there is unsifficient data on the exact number of purple sandpipers but its stands out that they are far smaller and observations suggest a slight but steady decrease in species Why is the sanderling so much more widespread/why is the sandpiper so limited?=first, to hunt the purple sandpiper needs specific rocky shores which in itself could be a limiting factor to the range of this bird, Second, there is a lot of competition, plovers, oystercatchers, gulls and many others.., As you know, there is a lot of competition on the beaches beaches and mudflats, how does the feeding strategy of the sanderling give them an edge over others?=their strategy of continously chashing the ebb and flow of the surf ensures they are always the first to get whatever washes up, it is a way of feeding tht requires a lot of energy but the payoff may be great enough to give these birds an edge over the others Why many ground-nesting birds breed in the arctic?=in most of the world, many predators pose a threat to nests placed on the grounds. Eggs and chicks on the ground are an easy meal to mammals, reptiles, corvids and many other animals. On the arctic there are ofcours predators as well in the form of arctic foxes and some birds of prey. HOWEVER the predation pressure however is far lower. What is a contributing factor to the decline in purple sandpipers observed by the IUCN?="particularly the purple sandpiper population in Scandinavia could be threatened by predators and human land exploitation" Conclusion purple sandpiper and sanderling=it is probable that the worldwide succes of the sanderling can be attributed to small but significant advantages over other shorebirds. Its choice of breeding grounds provides a safe place to raise its young and its unique feeding strategy allows it to forage with little competition all across the globe. Small advantages like these over its close relatives like the purple sandpiper have made the difference between a limited range and a global one What is commensalism?=an association between two organisms in which one benefits and the other derives neither benefit nor harm. What is the Lepidurus arcticus?= the L arcticus is a tadpole shrimp, are considered living fossils, they are namely barely evolved since the permian 250 million years ago and lack genetic diversity What is the arctic char (salvlinus alpinus)?= the char is a fish, a salmonid fish Where is the arctic char found?=they can be found further north than any other fresh water fish, not all char spend their whole lives in fresh water, some spend part of their adult life along the arctic coasts (anadromous) What does anadromous mean?=migrating from salt seawater to spawn in fresh water Where does the spawning of the arctic char happen?=always in fresh water, usually in slow-moving rivers (unlike salmon they do not die after spawning, and as such do so every 3 to 4 yeas. When do anadromous char first take to the sea?=when about 4 to 5 years old, to spend the short arctic summer enjoying the abundance of food available to them there, come fall, they return to fresh water to spend the winter in frozen lakes What defines the relationship between the arctic char (fish) and the l arcticus (tadpole shrimp)?=the migratory behaviour of the arctic char.. What are the l arcticus considered?=living fossils, they have barely evolved at all since the permian 250 million years ago and lack genetic diversity. Where are the l arcticus found?=widespread around the arctic, they live mainly in ponds of fresh water, where they play an important role in the locl ecology. How does the l arcticus play an important role in ecology?=as an omnivore they clear away detritus, and are predators to smaller crutaceans. Additionally, lthey serve as an important food source for many birds species during the breeding season. Does the l arcticus survive long?=no. they live for a single season and die when they've laid their egges. It is the egges that allow the species to survive at all How do the eggs of the l arcticus allow the species to survive at all?=the eggs are highly resistant to drought and have no problem stying intact throughout winter, when their ponds might have completely frozen over. What makes it difficult for the l arcticus to spread out?=the ponds the l arcticus live in are often isolated, combined with their short lifespan this makes it difficult to spred out How come that l arcticus can be found all around the arctic?= commensalism. as it runs out its not living l arcticus that spread, its their eggs. in addition to being drought resistant the eggs are also very sticky, by sticking to animals the eggs can be transported over large distances before hatching far from the pond in which they were laid, l arcticus is able to reproduce asexually through parthogenesis, so one egg can be enough to start a whole new population, in order to spread as far as possible, l arcticus eggs benefit most from sticking to anumals that migrate regularly this is where the arctic char comes in, by swimming around the arctic the char are able to greatly contribute to l arcticus's continued survival. What is partogenesis and give an example of species who does this?=parthogenesis is asexual reproduction, for example the l arcticus does this Conclusion l arcticus and arctic char=a commensalist relationship is a relationship between species where one of the species benefits withouth benefit nor detriment to the other, such a relationship is clearly present here, as l arcticus can spread thanks to the char's migratory behavior while the char itself is unaffected. What are the physical characteristics of the southern elephant seal?=they are the largest pinniped (seal), the largest member of carnivores and the largest Antarctic seal. The male is 5 to 6 times larger than a polar bear and they are the deepest diving air breathing non-cetaceans. Where is the souther elepehant named after?=the seal is named after his proboscis (his “snout”). What are the functions of the proboscis of the southern elephant seal?=the males cam make loud noises during the mating season, and it is also used as a rebreather, during the mating season the males stay on the shore and therefore the do not eat or drink, the proboscis has small cavities which can hold the moisture from the exhalations, in this way it is possible to conserve water. What is the lengt and height of a male/female southern elephant seal?=the average southern elephant seal has an astounding lenght of 5 meters and weighs 3000 kg, the males can become 20-22, the females are about 3 meters and weigh 400-900 kg, so the sexual dimorphism (physical difference between male/female of same species) is extreme, the male can weigh 5 to 6 times heavier than the female What keeps the southern elephan seal warm?=unlike other seals not their fur but the blubber (“speklaag”) keeps them warm in the cold Antarctic waters, they have a brownish greyish colour What is the living area of the southern elephant seal?=the southern elephant seal lives in the southern hemisphere (antarctic) Where do the southern elephant seal breed?= they breed in the sub antarctic locations such as the kerguelen islands south georgie falkland islands, also they breed in the south indian ocean on the crozet islands and Amsterdam island for example What are the haul-out spaces of the southern elephant seal?=the haul-out spaces can be on ice, snow, rocky or grassy terrain, they prefer sandy beaches on the northern side of mobile pack ice What is the lifestyle of the southern elephant seal?=the elephant seal spends 80 percent of his life in the ocean, but they are also very fast on land up to 8 km per hour due to their hind limbs, every year they moult (vervellen). Why is the process of moulting necessary for the souther elephant seal? =this process is necessary while when swimming in the cold water all blood goes to the organs and does not circulate in the skin. it makes it impossible to grow new fur during their time at sea, the moulting makes them vulnerable for the cold, thats why they rest on land on a safe place sheltered from any cold windstorms in the antarctic When are male and female souther elephant seal together?=only during the breeding season and moulting time they are together, the other 6 to 11 months they spend their time alone at sea. What is the diet of the southern elephant seal?=the favourite food of the elephant seal are skates, rays, squid, octopuses, eels, small sharks, crustaceans, lantern fish, krill, cephalopod algae and large fish Southern elephant seals also eat gastroliths, what is it and why?=hard concretions in the stomach for better digestion and balance their body in the water How much does the southern elephant eat?=20-50 kilos per day How does the southern elephant find his food?=they use their vibrissae (whiskers) and round black eyes which consists of high concentration of low-light pigments, their sight makes it possible for them to hunt in the dark deep oceans How do the southern elephants hunt?=the males dive and swim along the continental shelf while deep diving and foraging along the bottom, they return to the same feeding grounds and forage on pelagic and benthic zone, femals do not have standard feeding locatuions but go out on the open ocean where they dive up to the pelagic zone. Tell me something about the diving skill of the southern elephant?=their diving skills are very special, they can hold their breath for over 100 minutes, and can dive up to 1550 meter (ever measured was 2388 meters), the females stay under water for 20 minutes and the males 60 minutes. There are several reasons why it is possible for these seals to dive these deep distances..=first, the seals hold on blood in their abdomens and second store oxygen in their muscles due to myoglobin (a red protein containing heme that carries and stores oxygen in muscle cells. It is structurally similar to a subunit of hemoglobin). Meanwhile their lungs collapse and the remaining air leaves the lungs, in this way the seals can handle the water pressure, in the water their heartrate lowers to 3 beats per minute, all oxygen goes to the brain and heart Distance swimming, southern elephant seal?=they swim around 15000-32000 km per year, in 16 km per hour, 85 km per day. Mating behaviour southern elephant seal?=the elephant seal breeds annually and they are faithfull to their colonies (on the shore..), the bulls (male) fight to retain and protect thier territory.., an alpha bull can have a harem of 40 to 50 females (highly polygynous) How long can a southern seal live without eating?=well, during mating season they can conserve their energy for the next three months of fasting and lose up to ⅓ of their total body weight When do the female southern elephants arrive?=end september, start october, after a few days they give birth to a pup, which they nurse for four weeks (23 days) What does the milk of the female southern elephant contain?=it contains 50 percent of fat, human milk only contains 4 percent! all this time, about five weeks, the female does not eat when do the female southern elephants leave the breeding grounds?=at the end of november beginning of december, then they gestate for 11 months, there is a delayed implantation of the embryo after 16 weeks, it forms in 7 months, meanwhile the puppies are left behind on the beach and need to figure out how to swim and hunt on their own, the puppies stay on the breeding grounds for about another 12 weeks, the pups fur is black and protects them from the cold while there is no heat from the mother anymore Tell me something about sealing/hunting in relation to the southern elephant seal?=the seal has been hunted to the brink of extinction in the end of the 19th century, since 1950 their numbers are increasing and by now their numbers have recovered, nowadays they are threatened by other elements such as entanglement in marine debris (litter), fishery interactions, boat collisions, change in climate, competition with other species, presumable also caused by the distribution and declining levels of the seal his primary food resources, AND they are hunted by other animals: the killer whales and white sharks hunt on the somewhat bigger elephant seals while the leopards seals new zealand sea lions and southern sleeper shark hunt on the smaller ones. What are physical characteristics of the antarctic fur seal?=the antarctic fur seal is named afther his fur, they are also called kerguelen seal while they were first discovered at this island, the seals are smaller longer and more muscular than other seals, also they have external ears, they have the ability to walk on all four flippers, therefore they are best on land Are the flipper of the antarctic seal made out of fur?=no, they have a leathery skin Is there extreme sexual dimporhism between male female antarctic fur seal?=yes. while the males are 5 times heavier than the females the males can become 2 meters long and are 91 to 215 kg and can live up to a fantastic 15 years, the females can become 1,5 m are are around 22-55 kg and can live up to 25 year How much antartic fur seal are there really?=there are 5 to 7 million antarctic fur seals, numbers increasing How does the antarctic fur seal keep warm?=the antarcic fur seal uses its fur to keep warm (from the cold water of the arctic ocean etc.), the males do have extra layers of muscle and fat in their neck and on their chest What i the living are of the antarctic fur seal?=on several islands in the antarctic regions, such as south orkney south shetland islands south georgia heard island etc. Where do the antarctic fur seals breed?=95 percent of the seals breed at the isalnds of south georgia Why are there so many fur seals around the island of south georgia?=due to lack of presence of whales (while they were hunted by humans and almost went extinct) What is the lifestyle of the antarctic fur seal=most of these seals are fount in the open ocean, living a solo existence, the juveniles spend several years at sea before returning to their breeding areas, the seals only meet during breeding season What is the diet of the antarctic fur seal=their favourite food consists of fish krill sea birds squid and penguins, the growing population eats signigicant proportions of the south georgia krill and fish Diving and southern antarctic fur seal?=the antarctic fur seals has not got the great swimming skills some other seals have, they can dive up to 180 meters deep with a longest dive of around 10 minutes, but most of the time they dive around 30 to 40 meters for 2 minutes, the juveniles can reach these dives at age 4 Mating and southern antarctic fur seal?=the fur seal is very polygynous, the males can heve harems of a dozen to 20 female partners. the males arrive in october to november to establish the breeding grounds and protect their territory. Territory fights can be about life or death, they slash forcefully with open mouth in its opponents neck, in this period males fast 6 to 8 weeks, losing 1.5 kg per day. After a few weeks the females arrive and give birth to a pup in a few days. after foraging the female and male mate, pups are weaned at 4 months, there is a 11.5 month gestation with a delayed implantation of the embryo of 3 to 4 months, the pups stay alone on shore and get into the sea in january, by march they can swim in the ocean How can the female antarctic fur seal find their pup?=by making certain noises which the pups responds to, also each pup has their own smell Sealing/hunting antarctic fur seal=the seals were discovered by captain james cook in 1775 at south georgia, since then they have been hunted by humans during the 18th and 19th century and went almost extinct, they were clubbed to death and sold to china for their skin so they could make ladies coats of them, after sealing the umans focues on the whales and the colnies of the seals could regain numbers again, also there was more food left for them due to the lack of presence of the whales so they could strenghten, nowadays it is forbidden to hunt these seals What are nowadays other concerns for the antarctic fur seal?=environmental degradation, competition with fisheries (whales recovering from fishing are now also eating krill), entangled in marine debris, such as polypropulene packaging bands, nylon strings, fishing nets etc., climate change. the latter affects the distribution of prey species and the temperature changes which affects the breeding season which is an important behaviour feature of this species › unusual levels of toxic heavy metals in the antarctic seals, lakes are poluted, the antarctic fur seal is hunted by sharks, killer whales and large sea lions What is sexual dimorphism?=sexual dimporphism means that the two sexes of the same species have different characteristics, the characteristics can be related to size, colour, shape, weight, or sound and smell (darwin; due to the fact of sexual selection, in which evolutionary forces acted seperately on the sexes, e.g. a female peacock will only mate with the perfectly formed male peacock) newer research has shown that there can be other reasons as well such as ecological reasons (larger beak to retrieve food) or special reasons for the female and their pups (larger females than males which helps the females raise their pups better. What decides the mating system of the antarctic fur seal/southern elephant seal?= sexual dimporhism decides the mating system, how more polygyny the greater the degree of dimorphism, this degree of polygyny is possible to the fact these seals breed on land not in sea (males defend their territory) › they gained extra characteristics useful in fight (male) such as thick necks and chests and dense pelage. the size of the elephant and fur seal also helps to achieve more reproduction while these species can fast for longer periods of time during the breeding season while they can live on their blubber reserves. Is there extreme sexual dimpophism between the male and female marine mammals such as elephant seal and antarctic fur seal?=yes. the elephant seal bull and fur seall bull can weigh up to 4 10 times heavier than the females why did sexual dimorphism happen between male female antarctic fur seal elephant seal?= the seals do not form a strong band with a parnter to rear thweir young, the young pups must learn on their own and in a short amount of time how to hunt swim and survive, of all these reasons the males must be strong so they can defend the beach and females if he wants to mate at all Between male female antarctic fur seal, there is also sexual dimporphism in vocalization=both seals make loud an aggressive noises to establish their dominance relationship and to attrac females, also they can establish the dominance hierarchies by showing stereotyped displays and vocal threats more than physical aggression, also a sexual dimorphism in smell?=yes. the sexual dimorphism between the female and male in these species are so extreme that the sexes live separate lives except when they meet during breeding season Why did these pinnipeds evolve in polygynous harems with extremely sexyual dimporphism?=thomas cullen› discovered that sexual dimorphism in pinniped arose around 27 million years ago, the reason for this is that during this time there was a major climate and ocean circulation change, the harem colonies were likely located at the ocean upwelling sites, these sites have a vertical sea stream which is a phenomen where cold water rises, the upwelling sea brings nutriotion to the surface which offers phytoplankton nutriotion in this way the areas with upwelling are rich of life in oceans areas which lack upwelling the nutriotion sinks to the bottom of the ocean, all the pinnipeds were found at the same site in order to feed and mate, due to this fact the pinnipeds were PRESSURED into developing a harem mating system and therefore also into sexual dimporphism. Is there a relation between the habitat use, food dispersion and social behaviour of antarctic fur seal/elephant seal?=yes. (1) the monomorphic and monogamous species living in closed habitats get into other more open habitats (relates to major climate change) than (2) the pinnipeds could have ecolved in polygynous mating systems rapidly due to the CLUMPED food resources, which allowed all males and females to come together at one place for feeding, last step contains (3) evolving in size dimporphism due to sexual selection. What is the future of sexual diporphism among pinnipeds?=the climate change millions of years ago influenced the pinnipeds. todays climate change can also have an effect on these species, especially these species (antarctic fur seal, southern elephant seal), due to the fact that the temperature impact is increasing more in the polar regions (arctic and antarctic) than anywhere else on earth. when the temperatures rises in the arctic and antarctic seas the nutrition will also retrieve in these areas, it could suggest that other species of pinnipeds in the polar regions will also form harem behaviour. Conclusion antarctic fur seal and elephant seal?=the southern elephant seal and the antarctic fur seal live in the antarctic and sub antarctic regions there are similar characterstics › the females and males live very separate and solo lives and only gather in the breeding season, they are different from other pinnipeds due to the fact they have extremely sexual dimporphism characteristics, the males can be 4-10 times larger than the females and live very polygynous, research has shown that this mating system started around 20-27 million years ago due to dramatic climate change, all pinnipeds gathered around the nutrition sides with upwelling ocean and the mating systems were formed, in the future this can happen again with other familiar species going through the same evolvement. What is the lemming?=a small rodent, belonging to the same family as rats, mice and hamster What does the lemming eat?=the lemming is a herbivore, only lives off egetation such as roots, leaves and moss, often has to dig through snow Where do lemmings live?=tundra in the far north of the North American continent and also in the north of Scandinavia and Russia How do the lemmings keep warm?=they have a thick furry coat to keep them warm, they do not hibernate How do the lemmings protect themselves?= they are able to survive the winters by cotructing burrows in the summen when the ground is not frozen, these extensive burrows protect them from extreme colds and predators it also gives them a place to store their foraged food What predators do like lemmings?=the lemming is a common prey for all sorts of predators, ranging from wolves to owls, even though the lemming is hunted a lot he is nog endangered Tell me about the lemming cycle=the population size of lemmings fluctuates strongly over the years, like other rodents there can be a big boom in population in a short period of time, but there are also periods that the lemming population shrinks considerably before this boom occurs What influences the lemming cycle?=the extreme population growth is based on a cyclic pattern of once in every 3-5 years, however, there is evidence that the cycle has been interupted in some regions like many parts of scandinavia where there have not been population booms since 1994, BATZLI suggest that population levels are largely determined by the positive effects of resources and seasonal advantages and the negative effects of predation, the reason for the cycle can be found in trophic interactions: the main reason for the growth is believed to be induced by the availability of food, but seasonal factors also can have a positive effect on lemming reproduction: in warmer periods like a mild winter the population can grow at an extreme rate, more vegeation is left uncovered by snow providing more easily accesible food for the lemming [others argue that predation is solely the cuase for the lemming population to stabilize in peak years]. The predatory life has an influence on the lemming population, but also the other way around?= yes. the increasing number of lemmings mean that food becomes more widely available for predators, this goes especially for the predatory species like the snowy owl and the stoat that feed mostly on lemmings [dropped almost 98 percent when the lemming population crashed]. What influences the lemming cycle?=not only predators, the brent goose is a species that breeds in the north of Siberia, this area is also home to the siberian lemming, there is a connection between the cycle of the lemming population and the cycle of surviving brent goslings: the faltering cucle of the lemming forces predatory life to an alternative diet namely that of brent geese eggs › lemmings are easy to catch so an absence of lemmings forms a direct threat to goslings and therefore the whole geese population Does the lemming reproduction behaviour differ in times of population growth and population decline?=yes. reseach on female siberian lemmings show that reproduction behaviour is influenced by the population cycle, the females had a higher reproduction rate when the cycle was in an increasing state, when the cycle peaked, reproduction rates dropped Do the lemmings mass migrate?=yes. like most rodent species, they reproduce quickly, females carry their young only for twenty days in their womb and they can have multiple litters throught the year. this causes massive groups of lemmings to form in a short period of time › the environment cannot sustain peak years (big lemming populations) this results in a chaotic mass migration to new teritory even though the lemming normally is a solitary animal! Bottlenecks and lemmings?=a lot! the group of lemmings is prone to walking in bottlenecks consisting of boulders, cliffers, rivers etcetera, obstacle like lakes and rivers do not stop the migrating lemmings being good swimmers they ofthen choose to cross a body of water without knowing if the other side is near › too strong currents or lakes that are too big can result in a large amount of lemmings drowning Lemmings and mass suicide?=no! starvation and predators account for a big part of the deaths in the migratory group of lemmings Global warming and lemmings?=recent global climate changes have had a major impact on the lemming population indeed. the biggest impact has been in areas like norway where climate change has had warmer winters as a results, it is weird but it had a negative effect on the availability of food (since 1994 no lemming population growth) How does the climate in norway affect the lemmings?=the winters in norway have become milder and there has been a greater variation between freezing and thawing normally the temperature would stay under zero degrees causing the snow not to melt, in this case the snow would provide the lemming burrow with thermal insulation and it would protect them from predators whilst food is still accessible › the melting of the snow due to climate change allows water to infiltrate the burrows where it freezes again lemmings have drowned inside their burrows because of this. › even if the lemming survives there is chance that he will not be able to exit the burrow due to the ice layer that can form when the water freezes again › the total absence of snow would be an even greater threat to the lemming, lack of lemmings in the areas afflicted by global warming influences the whole ecosystem. Myths and lemmings?=yes. the phenomenon of the cyclic growth and decline of the lemming population was not understood in the past, people thought of various explanations for the mysterious appearance of the rodents: first known misconception around 1530, ziegler of strasbourg a geographer came up with idea that the lemmings would just fall out of the sky during heavy weather and storms and they would just disappear in spring, second it was proved by carl linnaes that the lemming had an natural origin in the eighteenth century, however it still was a mystery why the lemming population grew so explosive causing them to migrate in such great numbers… SECOND myth was about the lemmings commiting mass suicide, contributing most to this myth was the film white wilderness made by disney, in this so called documentary a number of lemmings seem to jum of a cliff to their death as part of thir migratory movement › the movie however was staged, people still refer to the lemming like behaviour when someone blindly does what he is told to do even though it can have dangerous consequences. Conclusion lemmings?=there are many different views on how the lemming influences his environment and vice versa, this position of the lemming in the ecosystem is viewed differently by various research but one thing is sure › the lemming has a vital role in it even though we know more and more about the lemming the position the lemming has is still complex to such an extent that there is room for more research and debate, especially regaring the current climate change, interaction between the lemming and his environment is not only important for his own survival but also for that of many predators How do the arctic skua and long tailed skua look like?=they both have long pointy tails a smiliar color scheme they even lay eggs that look alike, but the long tailed skya has ofcourse a wonderful tail with a length that easily exceed that of the other skuas tails. How does the arctic skua gets its food?=it is a seabird in the skua family stercorariidae meaning of dung, this peculiar name has an odd origin the people used to thing the skuas chased other birds to obtain their excrement but they instead try to steal other birds regurgitated food (so, kleptoparasitism) Where does the arctic skua live?=arctic skuas spend most of their time flying over the oceans and shores but they may migrate over land, they often stay within a few miles of the shore which is uncommon for skua and nest near bodies of water on the arctic tundra, these skuas start breeding earlier in the north than in the souh, ussually in may or june, sometimes in colonies and sometimes scattered across the tundra What is the arctic skua diet?= their diet consists of rodents, chicks, insects and berries but its main source of food comes form kleptoparasitism when nesting near other bird colonies, they may also eat other small birds and eggs What is kleptoparasisitsm? who does this?= It is a form offeeding in which one animal takes prey or other food from another that has caught, collected, or otherwise prepared the food, including stored food. the arctic skua does this; they do this by chasing other seabird and forcing them do drop their prey, the victim is then so distressed that it drops anything it has recently caught, the pursuer can impressively catch itsn new meal in mid-air Are skuas depended on lemmings?= a lot are but the arctic skua is not heavily dependent on lemming populations breeding pairs van cooperate in the search for dfood and defend their territory What is the breeding behaviour of arctic skua?=usually each year the pairs return to the same territory with the males arriving earlier to reclaim it and choose the nest site; often a small depression which they line with some twigs, both sexes share the incubation of the usually two eggs How are arctic skua fed?=the chicks are fed regurgitated (bring swallowed food up again to the mouth, uitgebraakt dus) The arctic skua male and female have a very similar apearance, tell me=both are about 41-46 cm in length and have a wingspan of 110-125 cm the arctic skua makes a variety of calls when defending its territory and attacking just like the long-tailed skua its eggs are a bright brownish color with darker spots, the young are small and fluffy The first naval divebomber from the british air fleet, the blackburn skua, whas inspired by what?=the arctic skuas incredible aerial meuveriability was an inspiration for the blackburn skua. by beating its wings rapidly the skua can fly into high winds it even uses its flying skills to impress mates since these birds are quite territial together breeding pair may fly at much larger intruders with high speeds in an attempt to scare them off How it the arctic skuas population doing?=the arctic skuas population is stable with no big fluctuations and therefore it is not considered to be an endagered species (least concern on the on the iucn red list What is the iucn?=The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) is an international organization working in the field ofnature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. It is involved in data gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, lobbying and education. IUCN's mission is to "influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable." Does the arctic skua face threats?=some. its population has decreased in britain possible due to over fishing of sandeels sometimes their eggs are stolen by arctic foxes and arctic skuar were illegally shot in the 1980s because people believed their dive bombing disturbed sheep which could drive them over the edge of a cliff tell me the long tailed skua dung story=it is a seabird in the skua family stercorariidae meaning of dung, this peculiar name has an odd origin the people used to think the skuas chased other birds to obtain their excrement Where can the long tailed skua be found?=the often can be found flying over the open sea and rarely go on land except when breeding, the birds scatter allover the subarctic or the mountainous tundra up to 1300 metres from scandinavia When does the long tailed skua breed?=they start breeding in june when the snow has melted What is the behaviour of long tailed skua=they can be very territorial and will try to chase away any intruder that comes near What doe the long tailed skua nests consist of?=their nests consist of a scrape a small depression in the ground, and they usually position themselves on a gentle slope to get a better view of the surrounding are when there is an abundance of lemmings they can lay up to two eggs but when the rodent availability is poor they may lay only one egg or even no eggs at all. How do the arctic skua protect themselves from predators?=after the eggs have been hatched the chiks hide from predators such as the arctic fox by sitting in low vegation some distance apart while the male hunts and defend the territory the female takes care of the young When does the arctic skua migrate to after breeding?=after breeding is done the long tailed skua migrates south from august to october adults that have not bred successfully may leave earlier What is the main source of food for long tailed skua in summer?=its main source is then lemmings but when these rodents are hard to find they will settle for insects shrews berries or even small birds What is the main source of food for long tailed skua in winter?=their winter diet is still a mystery really but it is thought that they feed on fish and insects, like the arctic skua it practices kleptoparasitism too, meaning they steal prey caught by other birds How does the long tailed skua attack rodents?= when hunting rodents it hovers some distance above the ground before flyingdown and pecking it to death the long tailed skua usually shakes the prey in his beak to break it apar as it cannot use its feet to grasp anything if their prey is too large to be eaten whole a breeding pair can cooperate to tear it apar together. Appearance long tailed skua?=it is actually the smalles of all skua with its lenght including the tail streams being 48-53 cm and its wingspan being 105-117 cm its long flexible feathers can measure up to 22 cm in length. its head is rather small and its body is slim the femals being slightly larger than the males is the only major visual difference between the two sexes The long tailed skua can produce three main calls for communication tell them= kliu, kuep and kreck when it swoops to attack intruding mammals the kreck call is made while kliu is given to intruding birds Is the long taile skua in danger?=on the IUCN red list the long tailed jaeger is classified as least concern (LC), not in any danger of extinction. also there is no extreme fluctuation in their area of occupancy and extent of occurence. altough much is unknown their population is suspected be stable since there is no evidence for any substantial threats or declines. HOWEVER the bird may be affected by marine pollution and is sometimes shot for dogfood in greenland Threats for the long tailed skua?=some. The bird may be affected by marine pollution and is sometimes shot for dogfood in greenland, also it is heavily dependen on rodent availability this could make the longtailed skuas population a useful measuring tool for monitoring the health of the arctic ecosystem. Summary arctic skua? distribution appearance kleptoparasitism heavily dependent on lemmings danger of extinction eats excrement stays close to shore territorial breeds in the sub-arctic=subarctic and southern coasts, “ordinary” tail, yes to kleptoparasitism, no to heavily dependent on lemmings, danger of extinction eats excrement, yes to stays close to shore, territorial, breeds in the arctic Summary long-tailed skua? distribution, appearance kleptoparasitism heavily dependent on lemmings danger of extinction eats excrement stays close to shore territorial breeds in the arctic=Distribution is sub arctic and antarctic coasts, has a majestic long tail, yes to kleptoparasitism and heavily dependent on lemmings, no to danger of extinctino eats excrement stays close to shore and yes to territorial and breeds in the sub-arctic Summary arctic skua long tailed skua=altough these birds share many similar features there are several important differences › especially the dependency on lemmings (long tailed skua is dependent on it), both species could face serious problems caused by climate change and warmer temperatures, they need snow to hide under from predators but the warming of polar regions causes melting leaving them fewer places to hide, the results of this have already been discovered › a massive increase in lemmings caught by snowy owls, another one is the melting of snow to flooding of the lemmings tunnels, this would have the biggest impact on the long tailed skua population because of its high dependency on the lemmings population, so although these skuas are currently not considered to be endangered we have to wait and see what the effects of climate change have in store for them, perhaps the long tailed skua will need to switch completely to a life of crime like its arctic cousin. When were the adelies discovered?= well, the adelie pinguins were discovered in 1840 by French explorer Jules Dumont d’Urville and were named after Terre Adelie or Adelie land which in turn was named after the explorers wife adèle dumont d’urville. Adelies and feautures=adélies are mid-sized penguins measuring 46 to 71 centimeter in height and 3.6 to 6 kilogram in weight, their distinctive features are the white rings surroinding their eyes and the long black feathers covering most of the red bill Were are the Adélie pinguins common?=adelie pinguins are common along the entire Antarctic coast and there are an estimated 3.79 million breeding pairs in total according to a 2014 survey. What are the natural predators of Adelie pinguins=their natural predators ar leopard seals, skuas and occasionally orcas. When and were do the adelie penguins breed?=from october to february the adepie penguins breed on ice-free rocky shores in colonies that can range from as few as 94 breeding pairs to up to 250,000 When are the eggs laid and how (of the adelie penguins)=in november most eggs are laid, two eggs are placed in a simple rough nest consisting of a shallow hole lined with rocks, they are incubated for 30 to 43 days with the parents taking turns of 7 to 20 days, after hatching the chicks stay in the nest for 16 to 19 days after which they gather tofether in creches When do the chicks of adelie penguins fledge?=after another 50 to 60 days they fledge and go out to sea When are adelie penguins sexually mature=they mature about 8 years What do adelie penguins like to eat=they feed mostly on krill along with some fish, crustaceans and caphalopods How deep can adelie penguins dive?=they usually dive to depths of around 20 meter but have been observed going as deep as 175 meter. Did adelie penguins changed their diet over the years?=yes. stable isotope records of fossilized eggshells accumulated in colonies over the last 38000 years suggest that about two hundres years ago the adelie penguins suddenly changed their diet from more fish based to the current krill based one, explanation (likely): the decline of the antarctic fur seal and baleen whale due to hunting by humans, this resulted namely in a surplus of krill which the penguins now use as an easier source of energy Are adelie penguins threatened?= after decades of having a conservation status of least concern they were moved to near threatened in 2012. What are the biggest challenge of the adelie penguins=the biggest challenge facing the species is the retreat of sea-ice as a result of warming up of the continent and the oceans. Adelie penguins are heavily dependent on sea-ice. During the winter months they migrate north northeast with the growing ice flows (known as following the sun) as the purpose of it seems to be to stay within the suns light Why are penguins dependent on sunlight for both hunting and navigation=for both hunting and navigation purposes. areas which have seen the biggest losses of sea ice such as the antarctic peninsula have seen a decline in the adelie numbers loss of sea ice combined with the adelie penguins notorious attachment to their colony meaning they have difficulty recolonizing may lead to some colonies going locally extinct Despite of the challenges, are adelie penguins doing well?=the decline in numbers on the peninsula however has been offset by the developments in the Ross Sea. Sea ice extent and duration there have increased over the past 40 years and the adelie colonies there which are already among the largest in the world are doing very well › the total population has been increasing, also! › another factor that seems to be in the adelie penguins advantage is their apparent ability to adapt, living on the ever fluctuating ice they have had to change their characteristics and movements as ice ages came and went for millennia How does the chinstrap look like=the chinstrap penguin is one of the most recognizable penguins, owing to the typical thin black line that runs from ear t ear under the chin which reminds humans of the chinstraps used to hold helmets in place, they measure 71 to 76 cm in height and 3 to 4.5 kg in weight. Where can the chinstrap penguins be found=they can actually be found all around the antarctic continent, estimation of global population numbers range from 8 to 13 million individuals, chinstraps lead a marine life living on icebergs for most of the year, during the warm season the move to solid ice free ground which they require to nest Where do the chinstrap penguins nest/breed?=during the warm season they move to solid ice free ground which they require to nest. there they lay 2 eggs in a circular nest lined with stones. the eggs are hatched by both parents in shifts of 5 to 10 days. after 33 to 35 days the chicks hatch, staying in the nest for 20 to 30 days before joining the creche, another 50 to 60 days later the chicks finish molting and head to sea, the chinstraps complete their breeding cycle by february or march and return to the pack ice during winter What does the chinstrap penguin diet look like?=the chinstrap his diet is simple and similar to the adelies and consists for 95 percent of krill, on occasion small fish or small shoaling animals are caught What is the main predator of the chinstrap penguin=their main predator is the leopard seal, eggs and chicks can fall prey to birds such as the sheatbill and the skua Are the chinstrap penguins considered to be threatened?=the chinstraps are not considered to be threatened by the changing climate and its consequences, they are classified as least concern mostly because of their large global population that has been increasing in numbers, in fact › the decreased snow coverage of the coastal areas around the antarctic are an advantage to the chinstraps, as there is now more ice-free ground for them to nest on, additionally, their boldness makes dealing with competitors for food just a small task Conclusion chinstrap penguins and adelie penguins=the adelie penguins and the chinstrap penguins of coastal antarctica are both presented with rapidly developing changes in their environment, because they are so similar in physical appearance habitat and diet they make for a good comparison of different characteristics displayed and strategies used by species to survive in the face of change › the adelie penguins are doing alright but the decrease in sea-ice extend and duration in certain areas may lead to declining numbers › on the other hand the adelies have shown to be adaptable surviving on the ice for thousand of years and suddenly changing their diet as recently as a few hundred years ago › the chinstrap penguins seem to be at the right end of circumstances, their versatility and boldness allows them to withstand the climate changes, better yet, they seem to benefit from the decrease in snow and ice coverage of solid ground Description atlantic puffin=the atlantic puffin is an aquatic bird that grows to be about 26-36 cm in height when fully adult, puffins have penguin like coloring and a colorful beak during breeding season which is mostly a combination between orange yellow red and grey, during the winter the beak turns to a dab-gray (when spring comes the colors return once again! Most of a puffins body is adapted to swimming, their body is relatively long and their wings are short in comparison to other birds (but have strong muscles!), the beak is able to hold multiple fish at once due to backward pointing ridges that keep the fish in place even if the puffin opens its beak underwater. Abilities of the atlantic puffin=puffins can not only swim very well but are also excellent diggers and fliers, they have strong claws which they use to dig burrows to breed in and they can fly up to a speed of 88 km per hour, flapping their wings at 400 beats a minute, also they can dive up to 60 meters deep (mostly forages for food to a depth of 15 m) How old can atlantic puffins become?=wild puffins are able to reach the age of 30 years but the average is around just 20 years old Is the sexual dimorphism in atlantic puffin extreme?=no. the only difference is that the females are slightly shorter than males on average. Distribution atlantic puffin=atlantic puffin can be found in the entirety of the north atlantic ocean; from the northwest of greenland to the coastline of canada and from north norway don to the canary islands Differences in size between atlantic puffins?=the atlantic puffin slightly differ from one another from the southeast (Great Britain) to the northwest (Greenland) the plumage is the same but the average body size increases towards the northwest this can be due to a decreasing availability of fish on which the puffin feeds the more south you go. Population atlantic puffin= the european population of the atlantic puffin is more than 90 percent of the globale population and is estimated to be around 4,770,000-5,780,000 pairs which equates to 9,550,000 to 11,600,000 mature individuals Is the population of atlantic puffin decreasing or increasing?=decreasing. almost everywhere and it is expected that the european population will decrease by 50 to 79% from 2000 to 2065 (might face extinction even, the species is currently a threatened species) Breeding and atlantic puffin=the breeding season of puffins start in april and usually last for four to five months after which the puffins return to the open sea, the puffin mostly starts breeding at the age of five (before that, it spends its time exclusively at open sea). The puffin breeds in colonies and will breed with the same partner each year and will only lay one egg (monogamous). The nest of an atlantic puffin?=with their sharp claws and beak the puffin digs a burrow which can be up to 2 meters long in which the female will lay her egg, for around 36 to 45 days both parents will incubate the egg and when the chick (called a puffling) has hatched both parents will feed it. After 38 to 44 days the puffling will leave the nest at night and ly towards the sea on its own. Threats to the atlantic puffin?= ONE IS CLIMATE CHANGE it will not come as a shock that the biggest threat is climate change; the northeast atantic ocean is strongly affected by climate change and it houses more than 90 percent of the global atlantic puffin population; the distribution and abundance of the marine organisms in this area heavily fluctuate which results in less food for the puffin, this has an immediate impact on the amount of chicks that are born and survive › Laying an egg costs a lot of energy for the female and when the female cant get enough energy the eggs and thus the chikcs become less healty › in recent years the eggs have started to become smaller, as puffins lay only one egg a year the population can decrease rapidly, SECOND IS OIL SPILLS, as the birds spends most of its itme on the open sea it is very susceptible for oil spills, THIRD IS OVERFISHING as it takes away the food source of the puffins resulting in the same kind of situation created by climate change FOURTH IS NETS related to overfishing ofcourse, puffins get caught in nets and drown, FIFTH IS HUMANS ICeland and the Faroe islands the atlantic puffin is hunted and eaten by humans, SIXTH IS OFFSHORE WIND FARMS AND TOURISM.. What is a Clione limacina?=a clione limacina or sea angel is a pelagic sea slug (naaktslak) that lives in the arctic water and feeds on LIMACINA HELICINA or sea butterfly (not an angels after all huh). Is the limacina helicina the only prey for the clione limacina?=no. How does the limacina helicina or sea butterlfy swim through the water?=it uses its parapodia, resemble wings Where does the limacina helicina live?=it lives in the arctic oceans but it is observed as far south as for example washington state at 35 degrees north Why does the limacina helicina=has shells which can reach widths of up to 13 mm (!) the shell can work as a ballast which enables the animal to move up and down in the water column AND it has a defensive function against predators What is the shell of the limacina made of and how is this a problem with the recent ocean acidifiction?=well the shell is made of aragonite which is a form of calcium carbonate that dissolves rather easily this can turn into a real problem with the recent occurence of ocean accidification. Why is the sea butterfly (limacina helicina) seen as an indicator for the extent of ocean acidification?=well the first effects of ocean acidification are predicted to occur in the arctic and antarctic ares which includes the living area of the sea butterlfly because of this the sea butterfly is seen as an indicator. Tell me about the life cycle of the limacina helicina=they are actually hermaphrodite, the smaller specimen between 4 and 5 mm are male and after becoming larger than 5 mm they change into females. In september most adult individuals disappear and mostly veligers (larvae) remain. These develop into juveniles through winter, this means that no adult individuals are left in winter, the lifecycle thus lasts for about just one year! What does the sea butterfly (limacina helicina) like to eat?= the sea butterfly feeds on fytoplankton and small zooplankton. How does the sea butterfly (limacina helicina) gets its food?=it makes a web of mucus (slijm) which sticks to the plankton What are the predators of the sea butter fly limacina helicina=the sea butterfly is fed on by several organisms for example sea birds and some ctenophores and the clione limacina (or sea angel). What is the clione limacina?=it is a sea slug that lives around the arctic Where does the clione limacina thrive?=it thrives in the colder regions in the arctic sea where it can grow up to 85 mm long, but it also lives in more southern waters places where the water is less cold but there they only reach a size of around 12 mm When do the clione limacina spawn?=they spawn throughout the year but there is a clear peak in summer How does the clione limacina eat?=it has actually eats in an interesting way, it has three tentacles in its mouth called buccal cones with this it can grab its prey then it turns the prey so that the opening of it shell is placed over the mouth of c limacina. Lastly the prey is pulled out of its shell by hooks that are part of cliones mouth the prey is then swallowed with the help of the radula which looks like a toothed tongue. Survival challenges and clione limacina=for a long time it was believed that these sea angels where monophagous which means they only feed on one specific species ? the limacina helicina or sea butterfly, then there are challenges of course › this L helicinai is not around all year long (and this prey is affected by early ocean acidification How does the clione limacina or sea angel solve its survival challenges/problems?=(1) fat reserves, after spawining which mostly occurs in summer c limacina starts to build up lipid storages mainly consisting of TAG (triacylglycerols) and DAGE (1-O-alkyldiacylglycerol ethers), from these DAGE appears to be the most important lipids for long term energy storage. ALSO CLIONE might actually be not monophagous, gut contents investigted with a DNA analysis and a feeding experiment: feeding experiment › showed some c limacina with other prey in their buccal cones but none were digested during observation HOWEVER l helicina was not consumed either (so no results), DNA study: showed that there are indeed some other species eaten by clione, namely some amphipods (vlokreeftjes), a copepod (small or microscopic crustacean) and possibly parasagittaelegans (small arrow worm) SO this species eats other things as wel througout the year Conclusion clione limacina and limacina helicina=the limacina helicina is threatened by climate change more specifically ocean acidification (only available in summer), DNA researxh suggest that the sea angel seems to be able to also eat other food sources however even though a feeding experiment did not gave any result., DNA research suggest that the sea angel is able to feed off other food sources, through this, survival of the species seems likely. Who are the Saami?=the saami, traditionally known in english as lapps or laplanders, are the indigenous people of europe’s far north Where do the saami live=they live in the northern parts of norway, sweden,finland and on the Kola Peninsula in northwestern Russia. How big is the Saami population?=the total population of these four countries is estimated at approximately 80,000. Where does the majority of the saami live in?=in Norway, the firs sami came to these regions thousands of years ago. How is the land inhabited by the saami called?=Sápmi, it is not a country with borders and a government Do the Saami have their own flag?= yes, since 1986 and their own anthem since 1906. Flag; the red half circle on the flag symbolizes the sun the blue part of the circle symbolizes the moon. What were the Saami in the beginning?=when the saami came to the Sapmi regions years ago, most of them were hunters, they hunted reindeer and other land animals. OTHERS hunted whales and seals and fishes along the seacoasts. How (what formations) did the saami live in the beginning?=the sami used to lice in communities of extended families called siida. the members hunted and fished together. How do the saami make a living today?=today some modern saami still make a living by herding hunting or fishing around 10 percent of the Swedish sami are still connected to reindeer herding › meat fur transportation Why saami reindeer herding?=for meat fur and transportation Modern saami other jobs than reindeer herding?=yes. e.g. earning their living in the modern service sector, industry, travel and public sector. What rights do the saami have?=the U.S. have recognized the saami as indigenous people giving them the right to preserve and develop their own crafts language education and traditions. Tell me something about the saami culture=the sami languages are very special. for example they have around 400 different words to describe a reindeer. They also wear brightly colored tradition clothing called gákti and have a very nice musical tradition; vocal songs called joiks What are joiks?=vocal songs sung by the saami What are gákti?=traditional clothing from the Saami culture What language do saami speak?= the sami peope speak a language that belongs to the Uralic. Linguistic group along with languages such as Finnish, Estonian and Hungarian, the language consists of nine different dialects. How many dialects of the saami language are in active use where?=3, these dialects are active in Northern Norway today What is the main saami language?=the main language is northern sami, spoken by about 75 percent of all the sami people. How is the saami language introduced?=the sami languages contain several words of finnish norwegian and russian introduced by early foreign traders in Sápmi. the sami did originally not have an alphabet but when outsiders cam to sapmi a long time ago they wrote sami words in foreign alphabets (7 more letters than the english alphabet 26 plus 7 so 33). Is the Saami language very detailed?= yes very. all the sami dialects are rich in vocubalery related to the natural environment. the sami have numerous very precise words to describe land water snow reinder and reindeer breeding. Give an example of very detailed saami language=the appearance of a reindeer for example is usually decribed in great detail. the age fur and antlers of the reindeer are described so precisely that in a herd of several thousand animals only one reindeer fits the description! ALSO: there are hundres of words differentiating snow according to age density depth and hardness (powdery snow, snow that fell yesterday, and snow that is soft underneath with a hard crust on top..) Buorre Beavi fal!=sami language for good day/hello! Mu namma lea elle risten, mii du namma lea?=sami language for my name is Elle Risten, what is your name? Mu namma lea Maret=saami language for my name is maret Mon lean Oehpaheaddji= saami language for I am a teacher Mon lean oehppi=saami language for I am a student Buorre idit!/Ipmel atti!=sami language for good morning! Gos don orut, Elle risten?=sami language for where do you live, Elle Risten? Mon orun Suarsass=sami language for I live in Suarassa What do the most sami people wear?=the most sami wear the same modern clothes as people in the united states and the rest of Europe. How are traditional Sami clothes called and what do they look like?=Gákti, they often weat them on special occassions such as holidays weddings and other gatherings › sami clothes are easily recognizable by bands of bright red and yellow patters agains a deep blue background (sami women are in charge of making new clothes for their families) What materials are used for sami clothes?= traditionally the gakti was mainly made from reindeer leather, the women use wooden bars with a metal attachment to scrape and soften the reindeer skins, nowadays they also use wool cotton and silk to make the clothes What do the patters of sami clothes indicate?=the patterns colours and the jewellery of the gákti indicate where a person is from, whether he or she is single or married and sometimes can even be specific to their family. (hats worn by sami people also vary by gender season and region) Saami women clothes?=dresses made from wool, belted and decorated with colored bands and ribbons, reindeer skin leggings, fringed colored shawls Saami men clothes?=short tunics, belted when the weather gets cold the men wear fur parkas over their tunics. What is special about the saami fur boots?=traditional winter boots are another special piece of clothing worn by the sami. they are made of reindeer hide and have pointed curly toes. these curly toes are not just for decoration: when the sami still wore wooden skis, the curly toes could be slipped beneath the ski straps to hold the skiers feet in place, to keep their feet warm the sami stuff the boots with grass. How are joiks sung traditionally?=joiks are song chants and they are traditionally sung a-cappella (few or no lyrics), do not rhyme and have no definite structure. (the meaning of the joik is expressed through melody and rhythm) › usually dedicated to a person, animal or place Are the joiks always happy songs?=no the joiks can be sad joyous or melancholic, the usually even have an emotional content, joiks referring to a person are the most common (person-joiks) Person-joiks=saami songs not about a person but the melody line is an expression of that persons personality, the melody is a musical symbol of that person What instruments are common used in sami joiks?=traditional sami instruments used to accompany the joiks are the “fadno” flute and hand drums Joiks at birth?=in some northern sami areas each person often has his or her own joik this joik is given to them at birth, it is seen as a representative of that person (like a name) Did someone ever win singing a sami song?=in 2014 jon henrik fjallgren from Sweden introduced the joik to a bigger public, he performed a very emotional koik during the auditions of Sweden’s got talent his joik was dedicated to a deceased friend, and.. he won! Conclusion sami people?=the sami people speak a language that is part of the Uralic Linguistic Group, consisting of nine different dialects but the main is Northern Sami, all sami dialects are rich in vocubulary related to the natural environment, some people still dres in traditional outfits called gakti, the patterns colours and jewellery of the gakti discern where a person is from and can even be specific to their family (key pieces are belts, shawls and reindeer fur boots). JOIKS are important musical expressions in the traditional sami music, the joiks hve few or no lyrics, meaning is expressed through melody or rhythm › usually dedicated to a person animal or place MAIN conclusion sami people= altough sami people live in isolated areas in the far north they have developed a beautiful culture rich in emotional songs and special languages, they even have their own fashion trends. Where do the chukchi live?=in the chukotka autonomous okrug (district) of the russian federation, more commonly known as the Chukotka Peninsula. How much chukchi are there?=the chukchi are with about 15,000 people the largest native group in the Chukotka Peninsula (10 percent live in the Sakha Republic to the west and in the Magadan Province to the south Where and did the chukchi live traditionally?=historically the chukchi lived as nomadic reindeer hunters in the tundra of western modern chukotka until the 13th to 14th centuries.. During the 13th to 14th centuries the chukchi made use of reindeer in an economical way=correctomundo. from food (soup from their stomach contents) to clothes (esp. from young reindeer hides) to housing (the reindeer skin yaranga tents) Why did the chukchi had to move from western modern chukotka?=pressures brought on by the Yukagirs a nomadic hunting group who also tended reindeer Where did the chukchi move to?=from western chukotka › along the coast close to the Siberian Yupiks Where comes the name chukchi from?=from the russian chauchu which means rich in reinder When did the chukchi call themselves Luorevetland and what does it mean?=since the 1950s during the soviet era this new chukchi name was introduced for the entire nation, it means “real people” When/how did the chukchi split up?=they had limited resources and were under pressure by other native groups such as yukagirs and Siberian Yupiks. Instead of working together they split up: maritime chukchi who settled on the coast and took up walrus and whale hunting and the reindeer chukchi who partially hunted wild reindeer and developed reindeer breeding in the inland tundra region Three main stadia in chukchi reindeer life?=the reindeer chukchi had a progressive collapse in reindeer husbandry since the dissolution of the soviet union in 1991: privatization led to a collapse and re-nationalization did not recover the chukchi reindeer herding everywhere Before chukchi reindeer privatization?= in the beginning of the soviet period, during the 1930s privately owned reindeer were to be appropriated by the state, pastoralists and their stock were herded into newly-created state supported collective farms (kolkozes) ordered to work together (officially the kolkhozniks held all property but in reality the state wanted to control everything and everyone. kolkhozes=state-supported collective chuckhi farms Kolkhozniks=officially the kolkhozniks where in control of the kolkhozes the state supported collective chukchi farms, but in reality the state wanted to control everything and everyone. Sovkhozes?=other than kolkhozes, the sovkhozes from the 1950s were chukchi reindeer farms that were effectively state-owned › state farms, former pastoralists where here obliged to work as state employees. What were gorbachovs policies and to what did it lead?=After 1985, during gorbachoves policies of perestroika (economic restructuring) and glasnost (political opennes) the chukchi finally experienced more (political) freedom, on 31 march 1990 the chukchi participated in the creation of the Association of the Peoples of the North and began to demand real political autonomy › chukchi autonomous republic When was there a reorganization to sovkhozes?=the reorganization of the sovkhozes (state-controlled farms) into so called privatized entities began in earnest in 1993 Why did the privatization of reindeer led to a decrease in reindeer husbandry practices?=withdrawal of state subsidies. in the 1970s and 1980s the reindeer population was fairly stable because of this (support included free veterinarian assistance the possibility to rent helicopters at a cheap prize and different kinds of social welfare assistance) › at a regional level the chukchi had about 595,000 by january 1 1969 and fell dramatically in the 1990s as a result of privatization of the reindeer; 92500 by january 1 2001 › overgrazing caused the overall decline from the 1970s (reindeer herding 1960 a bit too succesful, led to deterioration of ground vegetation) When began privatization of chukchi practices?=Gorbatsjov reign, 1993 Did the re-nationalization bring better times for the russian reindeer husbandry?= yes and no. still in the planning stages by 1998 (under Yeltsin, first president of the Russian Federation) › execution was somewhat devious and not entirely legal › reindeer herders had been tricked or strong-armed into singing over their enterprises to the control of the municipal authorities › 51 percent for the municipal administrations and 49 percent for the reindeer herders gave the municipalities the right to impoe management decisions on the entrprises.. › BUT the reindeer started to recover in 2001: 1,552,900 by january 2010 Why did the russian husbandry practices grow from 2001?=well then there was re-nationalization and although the municipalities had a lot of power, it also developed the market economy that opened new markets for reindeer meat in the northern regions and there was again financial support Did the chukchi also experience an increase in reindeer husbandry practices after re-nationalization?=no. in northeastern chukotka it was sadly still decreasing, because of the colllapse of the russian state in the 1990: this led to the bankruptancy of many reindeer enterprices and part of their animals became property of so called farmer’s economies › did not obtain any state or regional government assistance General conclusion chukchi=the political events in russia significantly influenced the changes of the chukotka reindeer population. Though gorbachevs democratic policies of perestroike and flasnost were the beginning of more political freedom, the chukchi were too dependent on state aid › resulting in the dramatic decrease in reindeer populations, moreover, the re-nationalization of reindeer herding in general initiated recovery in the number of reindeer but was too late for the northeastern chukotka region since many reindeer enterprises already went bankrupt in the 1990s. Important conclusion chukchi=1930s › kolkhozes state supported reindeer farms, a lot of state control and it reindeer herding went well › 1950s › sovkhozes › state controlled farms it still went well › 1993 gorbatchev › privatization of reindeer herding declined due to the lack of state support and an overall decline because of overgrazing since the 1960s paradoxically › 1998, yeltsin, re-nationalization › general increase in russia but not for the chukchi › they already went bankrupt in the 1990s Who are the Yakut actually and where do they live?=the yakut are a group of indigenous people inhabiting an area called yakutia north-eastern russia. › they are mostly nomadic reindeer herders who follow the annual reindeer migration north and south, they (just like the chukchi for example!) have suffered hardships and oppression in the past and present, GENETICALLY they are distinct from other tribes in the area What is the yakut paper about?=about the yakut people, with a focus on the findings surrounding the genetics of the yakuts and what this rells us about their history, origins and culture Ok, so who are the yakut?=the yakuts are natives of yakutia, eastern russia, this area is also known as the Sakha republic (this republic is the largest subject of the russian federation) Is the sakha republic a warm place?=no not at all. the northern ranges of this area are known for their extremely low temperatures, the verkhoyanks mointain range holds the record for lowest recorded temperature in the northern hemisphere (-71 degrees). How do the yakuts survive in these cold and harsh areas?=to survive, the yakuts had to adopt a lifestyle similar to other tribes living on northern tundras: they became nomadic reindeer herders, heading north in summer and south in winter. IN THE SOUTH the climate is somewhat milder and the yakuts living in these areas are non-nomadic livestock herders, common livestock: Yakutian pony and Yakutian cow › relatively short extremely sturdy breeds that are clearly adapted for the tundra life (the yakution cow is however an endangered livestock breed with a population of only 1200 animals) Are the modern Yakuts almost dissapearing from the face of the earth?=despite heavy persecution during soviet time, the yakuts are still relatively numerous with a population of over 470,000 in Russia alone (smaller population survives in china) › even though the early 1800s saw a large influx of russians in the yakut territories due to the presence of gold, the YAKUT are still the LARGEST ETHNIC GROUP IN THE SAKHA REPUBLIC: 49,9 percent of the population is Yakut with the second largest ethnicity being russian at 37,8 percent, ALSO 87 percent of the YAKUTS are still fluent in the yakut (so not yakult hehe) language. What is the origing of the yakuts?= the yakuts are a turkic people, the turkic peoples are a group of ethnicities spread out over western and central asia › of these the YAKUTS are the northernmost living Why do the yakuts inhabit the turkic northernmost areas? most people living in the arctic have lived there for thousands of years but there is no evidence to suggest the yakuts did the same=genetic studies show that the yakuts are genetically distinct from other tribes living in northern russia even from the other tukic ones › this suggests their immigration to the area was relatively minimal, so TRICKED: they actually did not so much inhabit these areas The yakuts are genetically seen most closely related to what peoples?=to the peoples inhabiting the area around lake baikal in south-eastern russia › based on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis › this confirms the theory that the yakuts originated in central asia, AND it also believed that the yakut horse descends from southern breeds like the MONGOLIAN horse rather then from northern RUSSIAN breeds. Is there a lot how genetic variation with the yakut people?= wel ofcourse not you dumb. How do we know the genetic variation within the yakut people is low? and do we have other clues for this?=mtDNA or mitochondrial DNA. But this is reflected in their relatively high occurence of hereditary diseases ? SPINOCEREBELLAR ATAXIA TYPE 1 MYOTONIC DYSTROPHY OCULOPHARYNGEAL MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY and many other very difficult named diseases. What does the low genetic variation of yakuts tell us actually (please tell me light of information)= for one it indicates that the yakuts went through a genetic BOTTLENECK › meaning the current yakuts descend from a relatively small group of ancestors, SECOND it means that the yakuts spread out over their current range relatively quickly and relatively recently. When did the yakut migration occured (and where) according to some smart-ass scientists?=the (smart-ass) scientist estimate that the yakut migration to northern russia occured around the 13th century Why did the ancestors of the yakuts, who were central asian cattle herders move to the northern tundras? I mean, the tundra lifestyle is difficult and required the yakyts tio adapt to their way of life with the northernmost yakuts even adopting the brand new lifestyle of reindeer herding?= a popular theory among anthropologists (very poor people) this has to do with shifts in the power balance in central asia during the time of the YAKUT EXODUS, the ancestors of the yakuts lived around lake aikal up to about the year 1200, as it happens, this is roughly the same time period in which the MONGOL EMPIRE started to spread its wings in the area, perhaps the ancestors of the YAKUTS FLED north to escape raiding and pillaging of the mongols even though it meant they had to adapt greatly So, why really was there an yakut exodus?=a popular theory is that they had to gled from around 1200 because the mongol empire started to spread its wings in the area, they had to escape north (to russia), even though it meant they had to adapt greatly Conclusion yakut?=the yakut people are a testament to the adaptability of human beings. the yakuts were forced to move into a harsh environment ad adapt to it within a short time soand, they had to learn to live with the unforging tundra environment and some even had to take up the entirely new lifestyle of nomadic reindeer herding. THE YAKUTS SHOW US that when forced humans CAN survive and even prosper.. everywhere.. or almost everywhere hehe What the fuck is RAIPON?= throughout history the indigenous peoples of the Arctic have not always received the best treatment (e.g. oppresion such as russia’s indigenous peoples) › activists have formed an organisation to protect these peoples interest; RAIPON What the fuck does RAIPON stand for?=Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North (so they help indigenous people of the Russian north Since when has the RAIPON existed?=Raipon has existed since march 31st 1990 (WOW interesting, not) and was founded at the First Congress of the Indigenous Peoples of the North USSR How many people does the RAIPON represent?=over 270,000 people spread over 41 indigenous groups (RAIPON is one of six Permanent Participant of the Arctic Council) What is the power of RAIPON really?=well it cannot vote on any decisions but is part of all discussions and has full consultation power, furthermore it hase a conultative status with many organisations within the US most notably its Economic and Social Council › in 1999 the Russian Ministry of Justice gave RAIPON the status of All-Russian Non-governmental Organisation, thereby making its representatives eligible to be appointed to the RUSSIAN FEDERATION’S PUBLIC CHAMBER. What are the goals of RAIPON?=it assists in solving environmental social economic cultural and educational issues and works with the government to safeguard legislation concerning indigenous peoples issues Why was RAIPON suspend on november 1st 2012, by the Russian Ministry of Justice (until april 20th the following year)?=the given reason was that RAIPONS organisational structure as described in its charter did not comply with federal law › firstly the organisations logo unchanged since RAIPONS founding had not been federally registered › SECOND raipons charter needed to include a list of its representative offices in Russia’s provinces (until now this list had existed as a separate appendix which hadnt been of any concern until now What did the RAIPON do when it got suspended by the Russian Ministry of Justice until 2012?=Raipon immediately called together a congress of Indigenous Peoples of the North to comply with the Ministrys orders › in april 2011 almost a thousand people came together to amend the charter › RAIPONS logo was federally registered, the list of representative offices was included in the charter itself and raipon once again complied to federal law. After RAIPON fixed the problems in 2011, there was another problem=the Ministry of Justice found a problem; some delegations had not properly formatted their meeting minutes › because of this oversight the Ministry refused to accept the inclusion of list of representative offices to the charter. Somehow the registering of the logo included in the very same minutes had been deemed acceptable › raipon went to court but on 18th october 2012 their case was rejected When was the RAIPON fully amended (hervormd)?=on march 28 and 29 2013, thereby fulfilling the Ministry’s demands, the ministry itself was not so patient, raipon was closed until just after the planned congress, thereby preventing them from complying (naleven) to demands that caused the closure in the first place [five months later the Ministry of Justice revoked raipons suspension..] WHY did the raipon really got suspended?=for centuries the gevernment had been able to exploit the areas Raipon now represents, once this exploitation concerned forcing indigenous peoples to hunt for fur to trade with europe, after the Russian revolution reindeer herding was industrialised again forcing indigenous peoples to give up their way of living to work on reindeer farms › NOW russia prime resources are OIL and GAS, sustainable resource extraction is not much of a thing in russia but RAIPON was in the way › indigenous peoples are in the way… While RAIPON has been restored the Russian government still doesnt seem too keen on promoting indigenous rights, what did happen recently?=in september 2014, four indigenous leaders faced attempts to prevent them from leaving the country to attend the US World Conference on indigenous peoples in new york CONCLUSION and RAIPON=the Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North has come a long way protecting the righs of Russias indigenous peoples and it looks like it will continue to do so for years to come › but while its once again officially supported by the Russian government it seems to have a long way to go before the peoples it represents will finally have the respect they deserve Who are the Enets?=the Enets, also known as Enet’enche, are indigenous people who used to live near the east bank of the lower Yenisey River (Russia). What does Enets means?=it means man or human beingg and sometimes the adjective enej/onaj is added which means real making their full name “real human being” How much enets are living in the Russian area?=237 of them. In 1989 › 209 Any conflicts involving the Enets?=well.. in the winter of 1849 the Enets and Nenets had their last armed conflict, the Enets won.. around the 17th cenutry they still greatly outnumbered the Nenets with a population of 3000 people.. however armed conflicht with other northern groups over territories and epidemics greatly reduced the Enets number.. In what bioom/climate zone do the Enets live?=a lot of them reside in the Arctic tundra, an area with permafrost The enets are divided in two groups..=yes, the Wood Enets (madu) and the Tundra Enets (bai) (different ecozones, different dialect of the Enets language) What were the Enets?=the Enets used to be nomadic hunters and fishers, they also domesticated reindeer so they could use them as draft animals.. The Soviet Union were very nice to the Enets=no absolutely not. when they joined Russia the Enets paid their taxes in furs, at the start of the 17th century the Russian authorities forced them to change; by the 1950s many of them had been turned into farmers and by the 1960s industrial immigration had reachter their settlements, it was at THIS point in time that the disappearance of the Enets had passed the point of no return. Tell me about the Enets area?=the area they inhabit is a very mointainous tundra, in summer the maximum temperature can be 13 degrees but in winter the average temperature can be as low as minus 30 degrees. In terms of anthropology, to what race do the Enets belong to?=to the Uralic race (Oeraals; Mongoloid and Arctic facial feutures, with only a small European influence..) What is the religion of the Enets?=despite the 18th century’s Christianization their their shamanism and animism has stayed.. How did the Enets live?=for centuries the Enets main activities have been fishing and hunting, in summer they gathered firewood food and since the cold temperatures require them to look for good ways of isolation, material for their clothes and winter houses. The Enets even domesticated a number of reindeer which they used as draught animals, they are also nomads and travel depending on the environment Is the Enets language in danger?=the Enets language blongs to the Uralic language family, their population has always been rather smaal making them unable to survive as a nation. › altough they have not fully integrated into the Russian community many Enets have adopted the Russian culture and language..’in 1998 it was determined that only 95 percent of the Enets still knew their mother tongue, in 2005 only around 25 people within 30 years extinct.. WHat did the Planck Institue of Evolutionary Anthropology (leipzig) do?=they started, in 2008-11, to document the Enets language by means of audio- and video-recordings, allowing scientist to continue further studying of the language. Could there be a connection between the Enets and the Nadene Indians of North America?=yes absolutely.they appear to have similar patterns in their DNA. Perhaps with modern technology and knowledge this could be investigated in further detail › it is also curious how their languages share similar features. Conclusions Enets= Things are not looking good for the Enets› their dying culture and language, their ever decreasing population and the incredible difficulty I had of finding information about them indicates a bleak future for them (already, alcoholism.., Yenisey river significant pollution) Where did the Pomors live?=the pomors were people (really?) who lived on the coast of the White Sea in the northern part of Russia What are the origins of the Pomors really?=the name Pomors originated in the 11th to 12th century AD on the southwest coast of the White Sea and spread to the west and the east during the 14th-16th century AD Was the name pomors a name for a group of peeps?=no, it was the name for the people who lived and still live in the Pomorje region (the European north of Russia) › some peeps refer to themselves as being Pomors or claim to be of Pomors origin › others see Pomors as a regional term much like a province; they are pomors but ethnically identify themselves as Russian. What does being Pomor mean?=the meaning of the name Pomors can be directly related to their way of life › that is because it is derived from Pomorsky meaning maritime!! The literal definition however is seaside-settlers/seasiders What means Pomor?=from Pomorsky meaning maritime What were the Pomor people?=the Pomors were hunters and fishers › to be able to hunt and fish they sailed across the sea Where did the pomor hunt?=their hunting took place in the Arctic and they established hunting settlements on Spitsbergen where people stayed for up to a year before they returned to the mainland Remains of Pomor people?=yes on spitsbergen › ppomors hunting stations, these remains include the ruins of houses graves and erected crosses Main question pomors?=did the pomors arrive on spitsbergen before willem barentsz did on the 17th of June 1596? There are 3 different views about the arrival of the Pomors on Spitsbergen.. (hunting)= (1) some claimed that it started as early as the tweltfth century, (2) some said after the mid 17th century, some (3) state that the Pomors were present on spitsbergen before willem barentsz (re-)discovered the archipelago Explain the 2 views about the arrival of the pomors?= the twelfth century view is dismissed because lack of archaeological evidence and the oral recounts are not reliable; the first view is that the hunting started after the mid-17century, mainly supported by West-European researchers and is based on the fact that the whaling groups on spitsbergen fom the year 1612 onwards did not report anything about meetings with the Pomors or about their hunting activities, the second view is presented by soviet archaeologists who state that the pomors were present on spitsbergen before willem barentsz rediscovered the archipelago.. it could however be the case that the Pomors stopped hunting for a certain period and returned at a later date. What are the sources about the Pomor sites?=[archaeological investigations 1955 by the Scandinavian expedition › later › The Institute of Archaeology..] still preserved written sources provide us with a scarce amount of information + (wooden) hunting stations material › dendrochronology Who arrived first at spitsbergen?=russian archaeologists date the Pomors hunting stations by using dendrochornology (dating based on tree rings using retrieved material from the hunting stations) › 28 sites, six of them have been dated around the year 1550, four of them to the 17th century but most of them to the 18th century which complies with the general view that the Pmoors hunting activity was flourishing at this time Based on dendrochronology, were the pomors on spitsbergen before or after barentsz?= BASED ON THESE DATES IT WOULD SEEM THAT THE POMORS ARRIVED BEFORE WILLEM BARENTSZ.. How come the Pomors are nowhere to be found in the earliest documentations of the whaling groups on Spitsbergen?=possibly there was a stagnation in the Pomors hunting in the 17th century meaning that after they initially hunted on the archipelago they left to come back one the situation for them was better again in the 18th century (highpoint Pomors hunting..) {this assumption is based on dendrochronology..} Why is the pomor dendrochronology dating not the perfect evidence for their time of settlement on spitsbergen?=because the wooden material dates to a certain year does not mean the wood was immediately used › the earliest huts were made by using driftwood and so the first huts could date later, e.g. around 1650 (this phenomenon of using driftwood to build huts has been seen more than often, pomors did this probably until 1700). ALSO when we look at other material such as ceramics, fishing equipment and hunting equipment from the different sites we see next to no difference between any of them (they did not become more sophisticated e.g.). What are the earliest written sources of the pomors settlement on spitsbergen?=the most reliable sources we currently have are written ones and gives us the best indication of when their hunting started › the first time Russian written sources ecen mention the hunting of the Pomors is in the years 1703-4 which coincide with an initiative of Peter the Great to create a Russia whaling company. CONCLUSION Pomors!=the Pomors are peeps who lived and still live around the White Sea in the Pomorje region. Within this region there are peeps who identify themselves to be of Pomors ethnicity and others who believe it is a word to denote the peeps who live in the Pomorje region. Nonethelees the Pomors were known for their SEAFARING, FISHING AND HUNTING across the close by seas. › this has led to a debate about them arriving before Willem Barentsz on the 17th June 1596 › the Russian and West-European archaeologists have differing views concerning the Pomors hunting which has led to archaeological excavations › The lead Russian archaeologist Starkov vouches for hunting activity that started around the year 1550 (mainly based on dendrochronology) › Jasinski vouches for the start of the hunting around the year 1650 (also dendrochronology but considers the possibility of driftwood › ALL unrealiable best sources are the Russian documents from the year 1703 and 1704 where the Pomors hunting activity is first talked about by a Russian whaling company (initiative of Peter the Great) › BASED ON THIS DATA COMBINED WITH THE FACT THAT THE POMORS MATERIAL CULTURE UNDERGOES NO CHANGES OVER THE TIME THEY WERE ACTIVE ON SPITSBERGEN MEANS THEY MOST LIKELY ARRIVED ON SPITSBERGEN AT THE START OF THE 18th 18th 18th 18th CENTURY! Are there a lot of scources about the Ainu?=no, their culture mainly orally distributed and there are not a lot of Ainu left so the knowledge is slowly disappearing as well.. Where are the Ainu from?=the ainu are a group of people that live in the northern part of JAPAN and the eastern part of RUSSIA on the KAMCHATKA PENINSULA (they have lived there for thousands of years). How do the ainu look like?=the colour of their skin is lighter than that of the Japanese and the average body length was 165 cm, while the Japanese only had an average of 155 cm in the mid-nineteenth century. They also have more hair growth than their fellow countrymen Who where the ancestors of the ainu?= this is not clear ;) Did japan and russia encourage the culture, religion and language of the Ainu?=no. BUT Japan enacted an anti-discrimination law against the Ainu since 1997 › still a lot of discrimination › fortunately the tides are slowly turining and the Ainu are getting more and more freedom to keep their culture and to practice their religion. What kind of ritual practices did the ainu had?=Ainu see the world as a living organism which means that verything has a spirit › there are gods that control the sun and moon but also different gods that make it rain or snow. › also inanimate objects such as houses, pots and pans, fishing gear, chairs and tables. What does the name Ainu litterally mean?= it literally means human › so everyhting that is not human can be godly and spiritual. › it is because of thisrelation with the spirit world whom you have to please and pray to that their entire social organisation evolves around their religion. What does the Ainu do when someone dies or gets born?=One has to appease the gods with offerings and ritual. Did Ainu gods also disquise themselves?=yes, the most important one is a bear › the bear would yhan be captured after which a sacrificial feast would be given in name of the gods so the spirit of the god could be set free. How is the ainu religion structured?=even though spirits and gods were very important to the Ainu there is not a priesthood nor are there churches › the head of the family is the one that carries out the rituals and the family home is where the offerings are made. Why are all the ainu houses identical?=the family home is where the offerings are made, thats why the houses are all built in accordance to the same practices and rituals. [these rituals are in particular important for the ainu because they have an oral tradition. Did the ainu have an alphabet?= no › this is also a reason why the writer of this paper thinks that religion plays such a big role in Ainu culture › to pass on their culture they use ceremonies › an interesting example of these are the sacred dances that the Ainu perform in order to bless and give thanks to the gods [not just religious, it also reinforces their connection to each other and the natural and religious world]. When were the ainu recognised as an ethnic group with their own rights?=only since 1997, when the anti-discrimination law was signed in Japan that the Ainu are being recognised as an ethnic group with their own rights. Even though a lot of Ainu live in Russia as well, the maority still lives in Japan where they were constantly discriminated against. Give an example of discrimination against the Ainu?=it was with the Hokkaido Former Natives Protection Act, which was passed on the second of March in 1899, that the Ainu were labelled as former aborigines and this forced them to become Japanese citizens. › the government took control over their (hunting)land and prohibited them to either hunt or fish and they prohibited the’use of the Ainu language and EVEN the expression of their cultural identity. What was one of the devastating effects of the Hokaido Former Natives Protection Act?=as a result of this a lot of Ainu started to resent their heritage since they had trouble finding jobs or even partners › parents stated to raise their children as Japanese and were encourages to marry with other Japanese in order to lower the Ainu part in their blood › about the 1950s and 1960s there came an interest in ethnic tourism, so the Ainu culture finally became something interesting and worth visiting What did the New Ainu Law on the 8th of May 1997 state?=the law aims to realize the society in which the ethnic pride of the Ainu people is respected and to contribute to the development of diverse cultures in our country, by the implementation of the measures for the promotion of Ainu culture, reffering to the situation of Ainu traditions and culture from which the Ainu people find their ethnic pride. What did the New Ainu Law meant?=that the Ainu were given a protected status as a recognised Japanese minority. They were given more freedom and financial support in order to keep the culture alive. Conclusion Ainu?=the ainu had to overcome a lot of setbacks throughout the years. The were discriminated a lot by the government (as a Japanese ethnic minority..). Even though their standing in society is improving and there is more mutual understanding, the Ainu are still being discriminated against › however there is a trend visible within the Japanse society were the Ainu culture is getting more and more respect › if the Ainu culture is getting more valuable for the Japanese it would mean that there might still be hope for this almost lost culture.. How many ethnicities holds the Russian Federation?=the Russian federation is a muliethnic country that holds over 180 different ethnicities, about 40 of these ethnic groups are legally recognised indigenous peeps that are defined as small numbered peeps of the North, Siberia and the Far East What is the origin of the Ngananasans?=In the second half of the 1st millenium AD several tribes began to emerge from the Northern Samoyedic unitiy (a group of Uralic languages of northern Siberia, of which the most widely spoken is Nenets), the Nganasans were of these. Were does the name Ngasan comes from?=comes from the Nganasan word for man, and was introduced by the Russians How do the Ngasan prefer to call themselves?=Nya, meaning brother or fellow How was/is the population size of the nganasan?=altough no information is available about the population size before 1900, the ethnic Nganasan populations over the past century can de described as as very stable; as of 2010 there were approximately 862 Nganasan individuals residing in the Russian federation ›HOWEVER this does not tell the whole story as only a 100 of them still live a semi-nomadic lifestyle. What do the Nganasan consider themselves to be?=they consider themselves native inhabitants of the Taymyr Peninsula Where do the Nganasan descent from and how do we know that?=By studying the Y-chromosome, scientists can classify the most certain path of descent and to which group individuals belong › On the nomadic Nganasan Y-chromosome, which is transmitted to the male line, up to 92% belongs to the N1b haplogroup this is the highest rate of N1b in any group of peeps. › peeps with the N1b haplogroup are descedents of the Samoyed, indicating that the Nganasan are genetically the MOST SAMOYED peeps of all (a member of a group of mainly nomadic peoples of northern Siberia, who traditionally live as reindeer herders). Is the Nganasan population under pressure?=Altough the Nganasan have been spared from RUssian influence until relatively recent and with what appears to be a stable population, the basic extistence of their language, culture and tradions are heavily under pressure. [his paper focuses on this, on the future existence of the Nganasan by looking at their language, religion and way of life). Where do the Ngasan live?=the Nganasan are the northernmost of the Samoyedic peoples, living on the Taymyr Peninsula. Do the Nganasan have a capital?=although originally nomadic, they do have a sort of capital which is the vilage of Ust’avam. The Nganasan can be divided into two tribes, which two tribes?= The Avam Nganasans and the Vadeyev Nganasans. (Avam=western part tamymyr peninsula, Vadeyev=tundra and eastern parts of the Peninsula) Do the Nganasan share their territory with peeps?=the nganasans share their territory with the Dolgan peeps, their soytgerb abd soytg eastern neighbours are the Yakuts and in the southwest they share a border with the Enets. How were the traditional tents called?=the traditional home of the Nganasan was a conical tent, called a chum, of a design similar to that of the Nenets (reindeer hides) What was the main traditional occupation of the Nganasan?=that was hunting herder and fishing › because of their isolated position, trade with other tribes was seasonal. What was the main source of food of the Nganasan?==dear meat was the main source of food of these nomadic people, other parts of their diet consisted of fish, geese and bird eggs Were the Nganasan also reindeer herders?=the Nganasan were also reindeer herders, reindeer herding was only necessary for transport and was subordinated to the main occupation of hunting wild reindeer › every family would have a herd of at least 40 domesticated reindeer. Did the Nganasan have conflicts with other people?=after centuries of relative peace the first contact between the Nganasans and the Russians started to effect the traditional ways of these people. During the time of the Tsars the influence was mainly limited to the levy of taxes › in 1666 the Nganasans ambushed and killed several tax collectors, soldiers, tradesmen and their interpreters on three different occassions › over the course of that year 35 men were killed Was the Soviet Union kind to the Nganasan?=not really, the Soviet influence which started around 1930, had greater impact on the Nganasan way of life, this was because the soviet authorities had determined that most of the reindeer were hold by a small number of families › they solved this by collectivizing reindeer property into so called kolkhozes (state supported collective farms) › they were forced to expand their reindeer herds which were previously only necessary for transport When was the nomadic Nganasan lifestyle ended?=despite collectivization and the institution of the kolkhozes the Nganasans were able to maintain a semi nomadic lifestyle following their domesticated reindeer herds › this tradition was abruptly ended in the 1970s when the state settled the Nganasans along with the Dolgans and Enets in three different villages it contructed; Ust’-Avam, Volochanka and Novaya › the Nganasans shifted from employment in the state farms to working for the government hunting enterprise › by 1978 all domestic reindeer herding had cesed and the yield of wild reindeer increased significantly during the 1980s › most Nganasan men were employed as hunters and the women worked as teachers, or decorators of reindeer boots Where the Nganasan kids schooled?=yes, Nganasan began by 1978 to be schooled in Russian and some even pursued secnondary education › the Soviet plans provided their settlements with wages, machinery, consumer goods and education. How many of the Nganasan still remain living a semi nomadic lifestyle?=only about 100 ethnic Nganasan. What is the Nganasan language?=the Nganasan language is a member of the Samoyedic branch of the Uralic language family and is spoken by about 500 people › two main dialects: the Avam and Vadeyev (only different pronounciation Is the number of Nganasan language speakers declining?=the number of people that still speak Nganasan is steadily declining (esp. younger peeps) › this is mainly caused by the state organized education (lingua franca=Russian). What has been done to preserve the Nganasan language?=since the 1990s, Nganasan is taught in a number of schools in the villages of Ust’-avam, Volochanka and Novaya. Furthermore, a number of textbooks for schools and a dictionary have been published in Nganasan. Also there are some local radio stations that broadcast in the indigenous language. What is the traditional religion of the Nganasan?=the traditional religion of the Nganasans is animistic and shamanistic. Nganasans believed in supernatural beings called “nguo” meaning the good spirits of all kinds of natural phenomena › these included for example “koch” the personification of all diseases.. [all a product of for example Mother Earth, Mother Sun etc..]. What did a Nganasan shaman do?=almost every nomadic group had a shaman who communicated with the spirit world and asked to provide peeps with health happiness and prosperity. Was the Nganasan affected by the Christian missionaries?=no. the Nganasan religion remained largely intact › HOWEVER this all ended with the Soviets who forbade all forms of animism and shamanism › with the death of the last great Nganasan shaman Tubyaku Kosterkin in 1989, the religion traditions of the Nganasan came to an end. Conclusion Nganasan=Of all the samoyedic tribes the nganasan territory located on the Taimyr Peninsula, is the most remote. With a harsh climate and average temperatures in winter dropping below -30 degrees, contact with other tribes was limited › until the 17th century when the Nganasans were forced to pay taxes to the Russian authorities › traditional nomadic lifestyle was not affected that much › this all changed with the Soviets forcing the Nganasan too largely to abandon their traditional way of life › by collectivizing reindeer property in kolkohozes their nomadic lifestyle came to a standstill › during the early 1970s when the Nganasan among other tribes were relocated into three villages, the traditional way of life was all but gone… With only about 900 ethnic Nganasans, the culture inheritance is critically endangerd and only about a 100 of these peeps still cling on to a semi nomadic lifestyle. Conclusion sentence Nganasan?=When looking at all the factors (culture, religion, language), the future of the Nganasan does not look bright, with a great possibility that it will forever disappear › although the ethnic Nganasans will still be around, their ways and traditions will most likely be confined to documents and stories. Are the Komi people a large group?=yes, the Komi are with a little over 290,000 people one of the largest groups of indigenous peoples in Russia Where do they live, the Komi peeps?=most of them live in the Komi republic in the north of Russia where they are still practicing traditional reindeer herding, hunting and fishing. [komi republic: situated west of the Urals, just below the arctic circle How is the climate in the Komi republic?=the climate is continental with average temperatures of -17 degrees in winter and +13 degrees in summer. When was the Komi republic founded?=the republic is founded in the 1920s and has a surfce area of 416,800 km2. How many peeps are in the Komi republic?=it has a permanent population of 950,000 inhabitants of which only 25% are native Komi peeps. [other are mostly migrants from Russia and Ukraine, who came to the Komi republic to work in factories during the industrial revolution. The Komi people could be divided in several ethnical groups, name one=the Komi Izhma, the traditional reindeer herders of the Komi people Tell me something about the Komi people=for many decades the Komi Izhma have preserved the traditional lifestyle of reindeer herding, the nomadic Komi herders travel at least a 1000 km each year, following their herds from the forested tundra in the south to the coast of the Barentz sea in the north. While living in nomdaci tents with complete families, they earn their living from fishing, berries, reindeer herding and farming [partly domesticated reindeer are kept in herds of 2000 to 4000 animals]. Is the traditional Komi way of live threatened? if so, by what?=Yes it is. the komi republic is an area rich in oil which has not gone unnoticed by big companies, from 2001 to 2010 Likoil-komi produced about 2.3 million tons of oil in the republic of Komi per year..many of the areas used by the herders are now so heavily polluted that animals are in danger of poisoning and intoxication [estimates are that about 1,5 million tons a year get spilled in Russia] › a lack in maintenance/monitoring of pipeline conditions [example: Usink, north of the Komi repiublic, oil spills pollute their drinking water, river fish and land for the reindeer to graze on]. What are the main problems of the oil industry for the Komi people?=drinking water of both humans and animals gets polluted and pipelines block the main migration routes. Why do oil companies in the komi republic not bother about fines etc.?=taxes and fines on oil spills are low in RUssia, so it is much more profitable for companies to leave spills and leaking pipelines the way they are, without a change in the Russian government, the situation is unlikely to change. Conclusion Komi people=the situation concerning oil in the Komi republic is problematic. HOWEVER, some sources have a habit of selectively using science to fit their goal, this paper may thus only give a view of the worst case scenario › NEVERTHELESS it is good to be aware of the situation in this remote part of the world. There might be reason for concern regarding the survival of the Komi people and their traditions. Where does the Arctic Peoples Alert stand for?=The Arctic Peoples Alert is a Dutch non-gorvernmental human rights organisation (NGO) which defend the interest of indigenous Arctic people who live in eight different countries around the North pole. Arctic peoples alert, where does the Arctic stand for?=The North pole area consists of large parts of scandinavia, northern Russia, Siberia, Alaska, Canada and Greenland Arctic peoples alert, where does peoples stand for?=Indigenous Arctic people have their own language and culture living in the Arctic regions, such as the Inuit (Eskimo’s), the Sami People (Lapland) but also the people Aleut, Yakuts and the Nenets (Samoyeds) [countries included are Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Finland, Norway, The Russian Federation, United States of America (Alaska), Iceland and Sweden. Arctic Peoples Alert, where does Alert stand for?=Attention. The situation of these indigenous people, the enivronment and the nature’s state is alarming. the lives of these people are under pressure due to rapid climate change, chemical and nuclear disposal and oil extraction. About the Arctic Peoples Alert logo=The logo shows two people talking to each other, the polar bear sleal musk ox and raven are on it › they are the most importand food source of the indigenous people, the people can be two hunters or scientists, the logo makes clear that the organisation want to discuss the important matters with the public and political leaders. When did the Arctic Peoples Alert start?=in 1992, the organisation came forth from the foundation Innu Supporting group, which supported the interest of the Innu People living in Northern/Eastern part of Canada. THeir lifestyles were violated because low flying exercises at the Goose Bay by the Royal Dutch Air Force in the periods of 1986-2004. ›› Due to the fact that the Netherlands were member of the Arctic Council, the activities of the Innu Support Group broadened their work territory and changed their name in the Arctic Peoples Alert Foundation on proposal of the representatives of the indigenous Arctic people in 1997. What is the Arctic Peoples Alert vision?=the foundation believes that the indigenous Arctic people who have lived for centuries in a sustainable way must proceed and develop their way of living in order to make this happen further contamination of the Arctic region must be stopped. THe organisation stat that is also in the interests of the Dutch people that people, nature and environment of the Arctic must be preserved. What is the Arctic People Alert mission?=the organisation asks attention from the publlic, politic, government and the media › they work together with national and international organisations › this organisation wants to defend the rights of the indigenous Arctic people, so they are not violoated any further › they want to get support for these people and their own organisation by sending a political message. What are the foundation of the Arctic Peoples Alert?= several.. (1) it explains the current situation of the indigenous Arctic people and the Dutch involvement to the government of The Netherlands, the European Parliament and several Commissions.. (2) the foundation informs the media and assists with journalistic work/travels to the indigenous people, (3) gives up-to-date information on the website www.artical.nl and www.willembarentzfestival.nl (4) publishes the paper Arctica three times a year (5) Gives information at different dairs such as the Arctic Market in The Hague. The task of the Arctic Peoples Alert foundation since 2013, give some examples= (1) Publishing the Arctica paper, (2) maintain the website Arctica.nl (3) lobby with politicians in favour for the indigenous Arctic people (4) Function as a knowledge institue by giving knowledge about the indigenous people to the media etc… How does the Arctic Peoples Alert Foundation gets money?=their income is dependent on donations and incidental grants. The Arctic Peoples Alert foundation wants raise awareness, to what exactly?=the foundation contributes to discussions about oil extraction and sealing by following the news and developments in the Polar regions and maintain contact with the representatives of the different indigenous Arctic people. [the organisation works together with companies and foundations such as Friends of the Earth, RAIPON, Niva to Nenets, Nomadslife, Museon and the Arctic Centre (University of Groningen). What is really the Dutch involvement of the Arctic peoples Alert?=the Netherlands is involved in the Arctic in several ways such as (1) Observer of the Arctic Council (2) scientific research (3) winter of birds such as gooses (4) climate rapid climate change and sea level rising (5) exploitation of gas and oil (6) seafaring trough the North Eastern Passage (6) Trade What is the WIllem Barentsz Festival? [Arctic Peoples Alert]= at this festival the past present and future of the indigenous Arctic people is discussed [for example in 2006 the Inuit in Canada were discussed, the indigenous peeps talked about their experiences with climate change created by the industrial companies]. This festival was organized with Filmhuis The Hague since 2008.., however, ever since 2008 there was no festival organised.. What does the board of the Arctic Peoples Alert (foundation) consist of?=the board consists of several members. Hans de Bruin is president/chairman. Drs. Marnix Koolhaas is secretary, and Ir. Charles van den Ouweland is the treasurer. The coordinator and contact person is Govert de Groot. Tell something about the Arctic Peoples Alert’s activities= (1) The Innu Group vs. the Dutch government/F16s [the Dutch fighter jets have been flying above Labrador Canada from 1987 and the Innus felt chased by the Dutch F-16s].. What are the effects of low flying F16s for the Arctic People? [Arctic Peoples Alert Group]= (1)migration routes of caribous are changing, (2) cases of high blood pressure (3) spontaneous termination of pregnancies (4) sleeplessness among the Innus) HOWEVER, the army’s base brings employment to a third of all people living in Labrador, without the base no Goose Bay ›› that is a strong argument which the Innus cannot contradict. How did the low flying F16s end? [Arctic Peeps Alert]= On request of the Innu Nation and Innu Support Group, the lawyers Gaasbeek and Hummels have summoned the ministers of Defense, Environment and FOreign Affairs on the 1st of April 1993 › they want to stop the low fly excersises by F16s immediately › [reaction] the Prime minister has send the letter to the Defense Department, Human Rights Department Foreign Affairs and a letter to the National Adivory of Development, the government responded they do not see a reason to stop these practises above the Innu’s territories. [Prosecutors] The Support Group has investigated wheteher it is possible to involve a great number of Dutch prosecturors in the lawsuit.. [10 years] it took another 10 years for the Dutch government to stop these figher jet practises in Labrador, Canada (28th February 2003/1st April 2004) When did the low fly excersises end? [Arctic Peoples Alert]=On the 28th of February 2003 questions were asked to the government on request of the Arctic Peoples Alert concerning the practises of fighter jets at Goose Bay › on the 1st of April 2004 the practises were stopped at Goose Bay because (!) the army did not have to train low fly exercises anymore, now mid-height practises... (so the indigenous peeps were not named at all in this decision..) Arctic Peeps Alert vs. Greanpeace/Oil exactraction?= Arcitc Peoples Alert has several standpoint on this aspect, while they rather not see exploration and exploitation of raw material.. They believe these peeps should have self-determination and therefore should have to have a say on this matter › the organisation believes this has to happen in the most safe and environmentally friendly way › Greenpeace tried to negotiate with the indegenous peeps however they did not establish a great name among these peeps the indigenous Arctic peeps turned away the help of Greenpeace. Arctic Peoples ALers vs. Sealing?= The Arctic Peeps Alert says that there is still a market for the seal’s fur, but that the fat blubber layer of the animals are also being used (e.g. medicine, oil contains healthy omega 3). Also the meat is eaten not just by the Inuit. The European government is also aiming at these aspects but the biggest discussion is about the fur › the argument should not only contain resentment about the way the seals are being hunted (clubbed to death) but also give strong arguments why it is forbidden › the experiences of urban peeps are based on pets and hereby are more attached to animals this is called BAMBIFICATION › these arguments are raised by the government but the Arctic Peoples Alert states that “are not all animals in slaughterhouses helpless and defenceless? ARCTIC PEOPLES ALERT ARE IN FAVOUR FOR THE RIGHT TO HUNT SEALS AND OTHER ANIMALS IN ORDER FOR THE INDIGENOUS ARCTIC PEOPLE TO SUPPORT THEMSELVES AND SURVIVE IN THEIR TRADITIONAL WAY OF LIVING. › THEREFORE THE GOVERNMENT HAS SAID IT IS STILL ALLOWED TO IMPORT THE FURS DROM SEALS HUNTED BY INDIGENOUS ARCTIC PEOPLE BUT THE IMPORT OF FUR FROM COMMERCIAL SEALING WAS AND IS STILL FORBIDDEN. CONCLUSION ARCTIC PEOPLE ALERT?= While the indigenous people do no have their own rights and the places they are living on even though most people have been living in these areas for thousands of years, are still governments property which makes it hard to fight for their own rights. It seems to be a battle between small communities and strong decision makers; a battle these people usually loose. How is Anthrax scientifically called?=Bacillus anthracis (a very small, 3-5 micrometers, but deadly bacteria) What is anthrax?=Anthrax is a very serious infectious disease caused by gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria called Bacillus anthracis. Give some in-sight information about anthrax?=B. anthracis is a sporeforming bacterium. Spores are single-celled reproductive units of non-flowering plants, bacteria, fungi and algae. Is anthrax very resistant?=yes it is! they are highly resistant to adverse environmental conditions and able to survive for long periods in contaminated soils. Where is anthrax mainly found?=anthrax is primarily a disease of herbivores, but all mammals including humans are susceptible. Is anthrax contagious?=well no. anthrax is not contagious which means you cannot catch it like the cold or flu. What is the cause of the recent anthrax outbreak in Siberia?=climate change is thought to be the cause of the recent anthrax outbreak in Siberia. [Russian arctic climate changes has increased by 0.7 degrees during the last 100 years, temperatures were between 25 and 35 degrees way above average temperatures for August › this heat wave is believed to have melted some of the permafrost, exposing the carcass of a reindeer infected with anthrax] How can domestic and wild animals become affected?=they can become infected when they breathe or ingest the spores in these contaminated soils, plants or water. Subsequently, people can get infected with anthrax when spores get into their body. How can people get B. Anthracis?=Anthrax is primarily a disease of herbivores. Humans acquire anthrax from direct contact with infected herbivores or indirectly through their products. In humans the disease takes one of three forms, depending on the route of infection: (1) Cutaneous anthrax, which accounts 95 percent of the cases, result from infection through skin lesions (cutaneous means of the skin), (2) intestinal anthrax results from ingestion of spores, usually infected meat, (3) pulmonary anthrax results from inhalation of spores. Pulmonary anthrax?=results from inhalation of spores. The inhaled form of anthrax is rare and extremely deadly. Infection usually develops within a week after exposure but it can take up to 2 months. Without treatment only about 10-15 percent of the patients will survive. How does pulmonary anthrax begins?=pulmonary anthrax begins with the inhalation of spores. If inhaled large spores stay in the upper respiratory tract, where they are less dangerous. The small spores however are carried into smaller bronchioles eventually reaching the alveoli or the tiny sacks in the lung. In these alveoli immune cells (called macrophages) try to kill the spores by attacking them with enzymes. Unfortunately, this is too big of a task for the macrophages. Although some spores are destroyed, many survive the immune attack. Then the spores will move on tho the lymphatic system. After a short period of time the spores will germinate and grow into full grown anthrax bacteria. What do full grown anthrax bacteria do?=when the bacteria multiply they produce dangerous toxins causing the lymph nodes to swell. Through the blood stream the toxins are able to reach the BRAIN and SPINAL CORD causing bleedings. These bleedings are often followed by death. Cutaneous anthrax?=result from infections through skin lesions. It is the most common form of anthrax infection. it is considered to be the least dangerous. Infection sually develops from 1 to 7 days after exposure. Without treatment, up to 20 percent of the people with cutaneous anthrax die. WIth treatment, less than 1 percent of the cases are fatal. How is cutaneous anthrax caused?=when anthrax spores infect the skin, through a cut or a scrape, a person may develop this. It is the most common on the head neck forearms and hands. A bump might develop, when the spores germinate and grow into bacteria, the bump quickly develops into a painless sore with a black center. Subsequently, necrosis, cell death of almost all cells in a tissue occurs at the site of infection. ›› Spores are often engulfed by immune cells such as macrophages and carried to nearby lymph nodes, this can cause inflammation of the walls of the lymphatic vessels. Inthestinal anthrax?=results from ingestion of spores, usually from infected meat. It is a rare but serious form of anthrax infection. Infection usually develops from 1 to 7 days after exposure. Without treatment more than half of patients with anthrax die with proper treatment 60 percent of the patients survive. How is intestinal anthrax caused?=when a person eats raw or undercooked meat from an animal infected with anthrax, they may develop gastrointestinal anthrax. Once ingested, anthrax spores can infect the upper gastrointestinal tract (that is; throat and esophagus), stomach and intestines. It will predominantly affect the caecum, the beginning of the large intestine producing a lesion similar to the lesion seen in the cutaneous form. In some cases necrosis at the site of infection causes an internal bleeding of the gastrointestinal tract. In severe cases these bleedings may be massive and fatal. How can anthrax be treated?=Fortunately in most cases an early treatment can cure anthrax. Cutaneous anthax and intestinal is cured with antibiotics such as penicillin. The pulmonary form is however considered a medical emergency. Only early and intravenous treatment may be lifesaving. ›› anthrax can also be treated with antitoxins. As soon as anthrax spores invade the body they become activated, multiply and produce toxins. Instead of going after the bacteria that cause the disease these antitoxins eliminate the toxins directly. What are prevention measures for B. anthracis?=When a person is exposed to anthrax spores but have not developed symptoms yet, antibiotics are highly recommended to prevent infection. Anthrax spores typically take 1 to 60 (!) days to become activated. Therefore, people who have been exposed to anthrax spores or bacteria must take antibiotics for 60 days. Are there side effects when using antibiotics/vaccins for anthrax?=ranging from soreness at the site of infection to more serious allergic reactions. [it is important if you live or travel in a country where anthrax is common and herd animals are not routinely vaccinated that contact with livestock and animal skin is avoided as much as possible]. Conclusions anthrax?=B. anthracis is able to kill its host. Furthermore, the treatment of anthrax infection and the prevention measures were discussed. Humans acquire anthrax through direct contact with infected herbivores or indirectly through their products. The disease takes one of three forms depending on the route of infection; cutaneous anthrax [bump to a painless sore with black center], pulmonary anthrax [infect the lungs lymph nodes and severe cases in the brain], gastrointestinal anthrax [one ingested anthrax spores van infect the upper gastrointestinal tract, stomach and ingestines]. Antibiotic are the recommended treatment of Anthrax but you can also use antitoxins. In Russian Arctic, climate change is now more evident than in many other regions of the world. The thawing of permafrost exposes contaminated areas and increases the risk of anthrax infection for human and wildlife populations. WE NEED TO IMPROVE OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE PATHOGENESIS AND TREATMENT OF ANTHRAX. IT IS OF CRITICAL IMPORTANCE TO THINK ABOUT PREVENTION MEASURES. What is one of the most important consequences of the existence of the greenhouse effect?=the positive feedback it produces › solar radiation passes largely unhindred through the atmosphere, heating the earth's surface.. in turn energy is re-emitted as infrared, much of which is absorbed by greenhouse gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and chlorofluorocarbons. Without the natural greenhouse effect, how cold would it be on average?=the average surface temperature would plummet to about -18 degrees, rather less than the present 15 degrees. The human induced greenhouse effect causes problems..=on a global scale. Since 1900 with the ending of the second industrial revolution between 1870-1910 the global surface temperature of the earth has already risen by about 0.8 degrees and since the 1970s by about 0.5 degrees. › this increase is related with the increase of greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide and methane (mainy due to human emissions) How much is the increase of carbon dioxide really?=the global carbon dioxide concentration is increasing 80 million tonnes a day from 1850 since the First Industrial Revolution (1800-1870). Imagine it as a single layer over our heads, this layer would gain 80 microns in thickness every day, the equivalent of a paper layer. How are the developments in climate change science in general?=First there were some speculations, beginning in 1824 with Fourier, it was not until (around) 1960 that David Keeling came with the Keeling curve showing that there is indeed an increase in carbon dioxide levels, then from the 1970s till now there are big progresses in computer simulated climate models. However there is still a lot to know about the arctic and the (human enhanced) greenhouse effect › especially about Arctic amplification (during colleges we learnt that warming processes are 3 times faster than on other places). NSIDC works with people around the whole world and wants to gain knowledge in this matter. The fundamental importance of the earths greenhouse effect to the earth’s climate has been known for a long time..=already in 1824 fourier first proposed its existend and in 1861 Tyndall made the first quantitative measurements of the strength of the greenhouse absorbers in the laboratory ›› gases such as water vapor and carbon dioxide are opaque to heat reays thus helping to keep our planet warm.. When were the first opinions about human induced greenhouse effects?=Arrhenius was heavily influenced by the works of FOurier and Tyndall and he calculated that emissions from human industry might someday bring a global warming. In 1938 Callendar looked at measurements of temperatures from the 19th century on and evaluated old measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations.. he concluded that over the past hundred years the concentration of carbon dioxide had increased by about 10 percent.. this ofcourse was related to the observed warming of the earth [he however thought it would be beneficial because it was delaying a return of the deadly glaciers] Who was REALLY the first one that alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the greenhouse effect and global warming?=Charles David Keeling, an American geochemist. In 1958 he worked at the Mauna Loa Obervatory at Hawaii and sampled carbon dioxide samples there, in 1960 Keeling had established that there were strong seasonal variation in carbon dioxide levels due to low photosynthetic levels in winter (esp. in late northern hemisphere winter). In 1961 Keeling produced data at this station and showed that carbon dioxie were indeed steadily rising, the resulting graph becane known as the famous Keeling curve. When talking about climate change science, what happend from the 1970s on?=the first computer-based climate models then really began to develop and the scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint. How were the early 1970s climate models?=they were relatively simple, using only a few key features such as incoming sunlight rainfall and carbon dioxide concentration. How were the mid 1980s climate models?=these models grew more advanced and began to incorporate clouds, land surface features and ice into their calculations. Who was John Sawyer?=he was a Britisch meteorologist and he summarized the climate change science from the 1970s and 1980s, he (in 1972) found that there was an increase of 25 percent carbon dioxide and he found that this correlated with an increase of 0.6 degrees in the world temperature. How were the climate models from the IPCC?=in the early 1990s, round the time of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s First Assessment Report (FAR), the climate models began to incorporate complex represtatations of oceans, a broader range of athmospheric constituents such as sulphates and aerosols and vegetations that exchanges gases with the atmosphere. When was the fifth assessment report?=it was completed in 2014, made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change What did the IPCC conclude?= (1) it is extremely likely that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming (1951-2010), (2) without new policies to mitigate climate change, the global mean temperature would increase with 3.7 to 4.8 degrees, in 2100 (relative to pre-industrial levels). Who is Al Gore?=He was the former president of the U.S. and he led a campaign to educate people about global warming. What is An Inconvenient Truth?=It is an inconvenient truth that there is the case of global warming. It is also a documentary about Al Gore’s campaign to educate people about global warming. [he showed that a lot of people think there is nothing to be worried about when talking about global warming and that a lot of people thus maintain old beliefs despite of the scientific progress]. What is the Pew Research Center and what did it do?=the Pew Research Center is an independent American “fact tank” based in Washington D.C. and they asked people in 40 countries in an opinion poll if climate change is a serious problem. They found that (1) majorities in all 40 nations think that climate change is a serious problem, 54 percent believe it is a very serious problem. (2) people in countries with high per-capita levels of carbon emissions are less intensely concerned about climate change, the nations with the highest carbon emissions such as the U.S. are even among the least concerned about climate change and its potential impact. [this poll thus makes clear that, thought the majority of people are concerned about climate change, the people with the highest carbon dioxide emissions paradoxically care less. Conclusion anthropogenic climate change?=the knowledge about both natural as well as anthropogenic climate change has expanded greatly over the last centuries. From the 1970s the scientific opinion increasingly favoured the warming viewpoint. The people however with the highest carbon dioxide emissions paradoxically care less about this important and problematic issue. What are moraines?=A moraine is an accumulation of rock debris which is carried or deposited by a glacier. How does a moraine look like?=A moraine is usually about 5 meters thick but some can get up to a thickness of 20 meters. Where does the material of moraine come from?=the material for moraines can come from erosion and avalanches from the valley wall onto the edge of a glacier, which is then pushed away. How is a moraine formed?=when a glacier starts to move because of its weight or meltwater it will pick up all kinds of rocks and debris from the valley floor and walls. The glacier transports it in, under or on the ice. At the margin of the glacier moraines get a lot more concentrated since there is lots of ablation at the lower parts of the glacier and more and more debris melts out of the ice. When the glacier suddenly starts moving again, the glscier pushes all the loos material into a ridge. Are there different kinds of moraines?=yes there are. One of these (1) is a so-called end moraine, (2) medial moraine, (3) recessional moraines (4) lateral moraine, (5) supraglacial moraine, (6) englacial moraine, (7) ground moraine What is an end moraine?=a linear accumulation formed immediately on the lower end or in front of a glacier’s end. Often referred to as the terminal moraine. What is a lateral moraine?=when a moraine is formed along the valley’s slope next to the side margins. This one is made of material from the valley walls. What is a recessional moraine?=small moraines that are formed while the glacier is standing still or retreating from the terminal moraine position. What is a lateral moraine?=when two lateral moraines meet and join at the intersection of two ice streams, a narrow line or zone of debris is formed in the middle of the combined moraines. What is a supraglacial moraine?=this is material located on the surface of the glacier What is englacial moraine?=Englacial moraine is any material trapped within the ice. It includes material that has fallen down crevasses and the rocks being scraped along the valley floor. What is ground moraine?=this moraine is located at the base, underneath the glacier which lacks any defined and obvious features. Were there also moraines found in the Netherlands?=yes. Plenty of pushmoraines have been found here. Push moraines do not entirely consist of material pushed away by glaciers but mostly of local sediment [with a length of 60 km from north to south and height up to 110m, the Veluwe has the largest..]. Are there also moraines found (real ones) nearby the Netherlands?=in the Netherlands there were pushmoraines, but a real moraine is found at the Dogger Bank of the North Sea, off the East coast of England. It is at least 60 feet higher than the surrounding seafloor and is thought to have been formed in the pleistocene (most recent period of glaciation). ›› first it was thought to be an extension of a ridge of Mesozoic rocks but seismic data indicated that this is in fact a moraine. Conclusion moraine?=There are many moraine types with different names, all based on their location in relation to the glacier › but are made of (almost) the same material. How can glacier be used to estimate climate change?=they can be a measuring tool for glacial retreat, an important phenomenon and since they destroy anything that stand in their path, the recolonization by vegetation in the snow “reset” areas can be used to monitor climate change. Is there life in moraines?=it does not look like it at first sight, but moraines are not exclusively barren wastelands devoid of life. There are still many living plants growing between the rocks › they created some kind of mini-ecosystem. MOraines can even create suitable conditions dor life; e.g. Rogen moraines, named after a lake of the same name in Sweden, can create depressions that fill up with water, forming a striped pattern of lakes. The arctic traditionally has a relatively low occurence of virulent diseases, how come?=becuase it is generally a cold, harsh climate that makes the arctic inhospitable habit for many pathogens, also there is a low density of animals and a general lack of insects that makes it difficult for most diseases to spread. Does climate change has anything to do with the increase in virulent diseases?=yes. climate change is shifting the baseline of the arctic rapidly, rising a northward expansion of many infectious diseases.., also rising temperatures thawing permafrost and invasive species is part of the reason we are seeing this northward expansion.. Where is Toxoplasma gondii mostly found?=the parasite Toxoplasma gondii is a pathogen that is most commonly associated with cats, it is currently being found inside arctic animals as well. Can Toxoplasma gondii affect people as well?=yes. Arctic peoples may have never been in contact with this pathogen before.. Toxoplasma goes through several stages in its natural life cycle, which form casues acute infections?=the trachyzoite form. How come taxoplasma is mainly found in cats?=the parasite can only reproduce sexually within members of the cat fammily thus making the domestic cat the most important host. How does the taxoplasma affects cats?=when inside a host, the parasite will start to infect its cells, but before it does so, it creates a so called parasitophorous vacuole around itself this is a special membrane the parasite develops to protect itself while infiltrating the cell. When it is established within the host, it produces hormones to manipulate the host’s immune respone, enabling the trachyzoites to proliferate. How does toxoplasma spread to other hosts?=to spread to other hosts, toxoplasma parasites form into oocysts, this is a dormant form in hwich the parasite can survive outside of an animal host for an extended amount of time. THe oocysts are really extreted along with the hosts faeces and after they remain dormant for a long rime the parasites will find their way into the digestive tracts of small animals, particularly rodents. After proliferation in this host a portion of the Toxoplasma parasites wil change into another form under the pressure of the animal’s immune system ›› a bradyzoite ›› they cluster together in structured called cysts, these cysts attacks antibiotics also.., the bradyzoites reimain dormant within the host’s tissue until the host is eventually eaten (hopefully by a cat) after which the cycle begins new. How are humans commonly affected by toxoplasma?=by eating meat of infected animals (also: contaminated water etc.) Do a lot of people carry toxoplasmosis?=Toxoplasmosis is extremely common around the world. It is estimated that at least a third of all humans on earth carry toxoplasma parasites within them (95% in some countries even). Mostly the parasitie is then in its dorman cyst form. What is the most common way of toxoplasma infection?=the most common way of infection is through food. Many different animals can carry toxoplasma cysts within their meat, particularly pigs and goats. How can you prevent getting infected through eating by toxoplasma?=the parasite cannot survive cooking temperatures so it is advisable to cook any meat thoroughly before eating, and to keep utensils and cooking boards clean. Water sources can also be infected with toxoplasma. What is the second most common way of getting a toxoplasma infection?=the second most prevalent way of infection is accidental ingestion of oocysts after coming into contact with cat faeces. Common ways of this happening are for example cleaning a litterbox or digging with the hands in soil that has been infected by burried cat droppings. When humans are affected by toxoplasma, are there any symptoms?=though in most cases toxoplasmosis does not cause symptoms in humans, there are several health issues. One is acute toxoplasmosis which usually plays out like an average influenza infection, swollen lymph nodes, headaches and fever occur, someimes accompanied by muscle aches. When people have a comprised immune system, they could get even neural damage. When a person suffers from latent toxoplasmosis the tissue cysts are causing small lesions in the tissues they are settled in. These lesions can occur in the host’s eyes, muscles and neural tissue (when healthy, really rare though). Is toxoplasmosis dangerous to unborn children?=yes quite. congenital txoplasmosis is a tooplasmosis infection from mother to child through the placenta. It can be the cause of stillbirth, birth defects or cerebral problems. ›› pregnanet women are advised to refrain from handling or eating raw meat and to avoid contact with cat faeces. Is toxoplasma able to alter the behaviour of rodents?=though poorly studied in humans, tocoplasma parasites appear to be able to alter the behaviour of rodens, causing them to lose their fear of the scent of cats. This behaviour is thought to increase the chances of the animal to be caught and eaten by a cat which the parasite needs to complete its life cycle. It is speculated that toxoplasmosis may also affect the behaviour of humans in a process dubbed crazy cat lady syndrome but yeah.. just speculations Toxoplasmosis in the arctic?=toxoplasmosis is not known as an arctic species. In fact, toxoplasma parasites thrive particularly well in warmer and wetter ares. Becuase of this, scientists were puzzled and alarmed when the parasite was found in beluga whales off the coast of canada. Why was the find of toxoplasmosis in beluga whales particularly alarming?=because many inuit populations in canada hunt beluga whales for their meat. Even more problematic is the fact that some groups eat the whale meat raw (!). However, no one knows what effect the new disease will have on other arctic species. tip; do not eat (raw) whale meat and cook water from local sources before drinking. Are all scientists surprised with the coming of toxoplasmosis in the arctic?=though the discover of toxoplasmosis generated a shocked response, some researchers sugges that tocoplasmosis may not be as uncommon in the arcitc as many believe. Prestrudd et al found traces of toxoplasma (2010) in several arctic species in Svalbard where no carts are present at all! The parasites were found in arctic foxes and polar bears. IT APPEARS the toxoplasma are able to sustain a complete life cycle in an arctic region completely free of cats, indicating that toxoplasmosis may in fact NOT BE A STRANGER TO THE ARCTIC AFTER ALL. Conclusion toxoplasmosis=toxoplasma, is not a completely understood pathogen. It has been shown that it CAN sustain its entire life cycle in the arctic. Only time will tell wheter toxoplasmosis will spread further north as the arctic thaws more every year. Studies are necessary to determine how arctic species like the beluga whale and on arctic human populatiions like the Inuit get infected by this pathogen. Has the interest in the arctic increased?= for a long time the interests was mostly from the scientists, but later on also tourists are coming from all over the world to see the ice caps and the animals that live there. Now there is the interest in the form of global warming and all the consequences that come with it. There are also new economic, political and environmental factors gaining importance. What are some of the negative effects of global warming in relation to the arctic?=For example the melting of ice caps (mainy the greenland ice cap) resulting in a loss of flora and fauna in the arctic as well as possibly major floodings in the rest of the world. The thawing of northern permafrost that could lead to massive amounts of methane in the air is also a matter of concern. What are some of the seemingly positive effects of global warming in relation to the Arctic?=in an economic point of view this climate change could be regarded as positive because it creates new opportunities for economic exploitation of the Arctic by governments and private companies alike (oil companies, shipping because there are more northern shipping routes forming, fishing because it becomes more accesible with the melting of ice caps) What is the USGS and what did it discover?=It is the United States Geological Survey, they made an assesment in 2008 of the amount of undiscovered oil and gas in the arctic. Their estimate was that 13% of the worlds undiscovered amount of oil and 30% of the undiscovered amount of gas is in the Arctic. Most of these resources are to be found offshore in relatively shallow water ›› interesting and important for oil companies. In the past governments did not really care about the Arctic, how come the do now?=economic interests have grown a lot and there are a lot of natural resources on which the different governments want to stake a claim. These claims vary from oilfields and gas bubbles underneath the ocean to claiming different parts of the seas and discussion on the exntended continental shelf on the sea bottom. These different claims can lead to conflicting interests and even (armed) conflicts. Why is the Arctic Council so important?=because of the ever increasing interests in the arctic (governments, fishers, oil companies, seafarers..). They have played a vital role in the cooperation between states and the drafting of mutual agreements in order to protect the arctic and its inhabitants. When was the Arctic council founded and how was it constructed?=The Arctic Council was founded in 1996 and contains all eight arctic states (U.S., Canada, Russia, Denmark, Finland, Norway, Iceland, Sweden..). Can everybody be a member of the arctic council?=no, only states with territory in the arctic can become a member, but there are a number of observer states as well. What do the observer states of the Arctic Council do?=these states have different interests (economical/political) in the region. Japan, China and South Korea for example are observer states because of their growing shipping interests in the arctic. Are there also indigenous communities involved in the Arctic council?=yes. six different indigenous communities have a Permanent Participant status in the Arctic Council. What was the role of the Arctic Council in the past for the greatest part?=the focus was mainly on the environmental and the preservation of the arctic flora and fauna What is the role of the Arctic Council nowadays mostly?=because of the growing political and economic interest, its mandate is shifting. The role of the Arctic Council was to promote cooperation between states and to draft guidelines for sustainable development. It has been very effective in doing so, because it provided a common ground between countries and so political barriers could be torn down and the dialogue would be maintained. ›› NOW there is a change in the policies of the Arctic Council: in 2011 the AC accepted its first legally binding law which was the Arctic Search and Rescue Agreement. Is the Arctic Council gaining power/importance?=yes. there is a viable scenario were the Arctic Counsel is transforming in a sort of arctic government instead of its original environmental mandate. What are the consequences of the gaining of power (binding laws etc.) of the Arctic Council?=if the Council can accept legally binding arctic treaties, this would greatly reinforce the influence of national states. This would be problematic since the interests of different countries can differ a lot from the interests of the indigenous people/smaller provinces. This would mean that economic factors would probably gain a more prominent role while the environmental factors will be less important [these countries would gain a lot of money and power in the arctic]. Are the indigenous communities important for the Arctic council or do countries use them?=the indigenous commuties only have a marginal role. The arctic states use the indigenous people to justify their claims on the different arctic territories (five arctic states, Canada, Denmark, Norway, Russia and USA) › they claim to have the most rights on arctic territories BECAUSE OF THEIR INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES THAT LIVE THERE.. ofcourse these communities are being used for their personal gain, indigenous people are not involved in the decision making process or reap the benefits of potential economic gain. Does the Arctic Council sometimes work as a buffer between indigenous people and arctic states?=yes very much. The Arctic COuncil will play a vital role amongst this scramble for influence and territory since it will provide the indigenous communities with a VOICE. The Arctic Council can then function as a REPRESENTATIVE of the small communties that would otherwise not be heard and as a PROTECTOR of the Arctic environment. Conclusion Arctic Council?=the Arctic Council has played an important role in the arctic and the preservation of the arctic environment. The economic interests in the region will grow and with that so will the political interests. Countries will stake claims on the natural resources of the arctic.. it however remains to be seen if the Arctic Council will transform in an arctic police force to enforce its treaties and to manage a possible very cold war (haha) between nation states or that it will remain a consortium for mutual cooperation and understanding. This does NOT mean that an arctic conflict is likely, but it DOES mean that the future of the Arctic is changing. What is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge?=the Atlantic Ridge is a mid-oceanic ridge which is known for its constructive margins/divergent boundaries. On places along the Atlantic Ridge the plates are moving away from each other which creates volcanism along the ridge and warmer water streams. At the ridges new oceanic crusts are formed which can build up and create continental crusts for islands. What have the islands Jan Mayen and Iceland in common?=they both are part of the Atlantic ridge system. What is one of the differences between the Jan Mayen and Iceland islands?=iceland is split by the ridge and situated on TOP of it, Jan mayen is on top of a hotspot and the plate is drifting on top of this. Tell me something about Iceland=Iceland is located on top of two tectonic plates, the north American plate and the Eurasian plate. The plates are drifting apart, making iceland 2 cm wider every year. Rifting (surface cracking) can take place at fissure zones, which can be accompanied by volcanic activity, the ground can rise 1-2 meters then drop abruptly signalling an impending eruption. Are there volcanoes on iceland?=there are different kinds of volcanoes on Iceland such as the stratovolcano, shield volcanoes and subglacial volcanoes. There are over 100 volcanoes on iceland, around 35 have erupted in recent history. What is Hekla?=Hekla is a stratovolcano located on the eastern rift zone in Iceland. It is 1491 meters high with explosive eruptions. Stories about Hekla?=there is a legend about Hekla saying that the souls of the condemned travelled to Hekla on their way to hell. Also, a German cartopgrapher drew a map of Iceland in the 16th century, he named the mountain Hekl’berg, it became famous and several authors wrote about the volcano.. it is also called Hekenfield.. and people thought the volcano would burn the fires of hell. The man was called de man van hekkenfield and everyone was eager to hear the stories. Is the Hekla volcano dangerous?=hekla has erupted more often than any other volcano on Iceland. Some eruptions have been so powerful and violent that the volcanic ash reach as far as mainland Europe. Over the last century, the volcano has produced one of the largest volumes of lave around the world, approximately 9 cubic km at one eruption (2800 years ago) so much tephra was released that it now covers 80 percent of the island. Tell me something about the Katla volcano=the Katla volcano is the biggest active volcano of Iceland, it is 1512 meters high and at his base has a diameter of 10 km. It is however covered under the glacier called Mýrdalsjökull. every 40-80 years the volcano erupts. the last time was in 1918 (so soon eruption is expected) ››› SUBGLACIAL VOLCANO. What will happen if the Katla volcano erupts?=the volcano is a subglacial volcano so if the volcano erupts, the glacier on top of the volcano will melt in a short amount of time and all the water will slide along the mountain downhill (lahars; subtance is called this when water and lava collide).. it can result in catastrophic floods. Therefore, it is the most DANGEROUS volcano of Iceland. What is..Jökulhaup??=it means glacier run, which is usually due to eruptions of subglacial volcanoes. Basically it is a type of lahars, the ice on the volcano melts because of the warmth and heat underneath the volcano. This creates water which can form a lake under the ice cap. This ice cap then collapses or the water just breaks through the cap ›› a disastrous flood will then slide down the mountain. Where lies Jan Mayen?=Jan Mayen lies 600 km in the north east position of Iceland, between greenland and North Norway. It is a real small ISLAND (only 373 km2 long..) it is enclosed by two oceans; the Greenland sea on the northwest side and the North Sea on the southeast side. How is Jan Mayen formed?=Jan Mayen is formed by the Atlantic Ocean. First it was part of Greenland, until 35 million years ago. In the eastern part there was an active ridge called Aegir Ridge, which pulled on the continental crust on the western part and broke the continental crust on the western part and broke the continental crust apart. A new ridge was formed called the Kolbeinsey RIdge. This ridge is restricted by oceanic crust and took over the activity of Aegir. Ever since Greenland and Jan Mayen have been drifting apart from each other › Jan Mayen is on top of different ridges, called the Jan Mayen Fracture Zone (there is a whole zone of fracture segments there). The magma reaches earth’s surface and turns into lave and creates this volcanic complex. This is possible because the plates do not only move next to each other but also are separated from each other. Therefore the lave does not come in contact with the continental crust. What does the lava of Jan Mayen consist of?=the lava found on Jan Mayen only consists of material from the deep core of the mantel. The craters of Beerenburg are around 5000-6000 years old, so really young (it is still forming itself). The Beerenberg volcano on Jan Mayen..=is a basaltic stratovolcano (some say it is a shield volcano) and is 2277 meter high and covered with glaciers. The lava is composed of basaltic lava flows, with some amounts of tephra. Jan Mayen and hotspot..=It is said that underneat the Beerenberg volcano an hotspot can be found. An hotspot is an area with high underground temperatures. These hotspots are in regions with active or geologically young volcanoes. Hotspots OCCUR at tectonic plate boundaries, or at ares where the earth’s crust is thin enough to let the heat through. Is Jan Mayen difficult to investigate?=yes. Due to the geographical place of Jan Mayen it is difficult to examine. Heavy seas and vicious weather conditions make it hard to research the ground and the volcano. Why is it said that underneath the Beerenburg volcano there is an hotspot?=the beerenburg volcano consists of material that suggest that the lava has not been in contact with the continental crust. It is basaltic, so the same material as the oceanic crust. Tell me something about the eruptions at Beerenburg= 7 ones between 1985-600.. Important, what is the difference between the Beerenburg volcano and the Iceland volcano?=Jan Mayen is a stratovolcano, Iceland has different ones Hekla is a stratovolcano and Katla is a subglacial volcano and only the caldera remains. In Jan Mayen there are also fissure zones, probalbly controlled by the magma reservoirs underneath the stratovolcano. These fissure zones are containing shield volcanoes which are volcanoes with flat slopes. The lava can stream easily due to the relative low viscosity.. shield volcanoes can be found in regions with ridges as on Iceland and also near oceanic hotspots as in Jan Mayen. Hotspots and Jan Mayen/Iceland=Iceland and Jan Mayen are both built up by ridges due to shifting in tectonic plates and due to hotspots they are on top of. It is said that under the stratovolcano Beerenberg on Jan Mayen lies a hotspot and also in east Iceland a hotspot can be found. Hotspots=a hotspot is a place on the planet where volcanism can take place which is not related to plate tectonics. At an hotspot the magma can reach earth’s surface which is pushed upwards from deep down the mantel. These hotspots are created by warm streams above places where upward streaming in the mantel can take place. Because plates on top of these warmer spots are moving, the earth’s surface is moving along these hotspots in this way a row of volcanoes can be created at the surface (e.g. Iceland). Subglacial volcanoes..=Volcanoes under a glacier. Beerenberg has more than 100 km2 of glaciers. These are shrinking due to climate change and most of the glaciers are hiding under their growing terminal moraines. One glacier is situated at the central crater on top of the volcano and flows down the volcano, it is called weyprechtbreen. In the northern parts of Jan Mayen there is not much ice, the volcano is parly ice-free due to rises of warm gasses. The meltwater floats into the sea, cools off and forms ice along the shore. On Iceland there are also many subglacial volcanoes. Conclusion Jan Mayen and Iceland=Volcanism on Iceland and Jan Mayen can be compared in several ways. Both have volcanic activity due to being near or on top of ridges due to tectonic plates. Also there is the believe that both islands are on top of hotspots which is not certain to say about Jan Mayen yet! On Iceland there are over a 100 volcanoes, several well-known such as Katla and Hekla. There are stratovolcanoes shield volcanoes and subglacial volcanoes which have in the past erupted explosively. The geological comparison is different, while Iceland is older than Jan Mayen and is created by being on top of the ridge of the Mid-Atlantic, while Jan Mayen was seperated from Greenland and further created by volcanic activity along the ridges and perhaps by the hotspot underneath Beerenberg. Is the thawing of permafrost a big problem?=yes, very much. All across the Arctic permafrost is thawing due to global warming. For instance this has led to buildings sinking in the ground and roads becoming littered with cracks and holes. Besides of the human consequences, the thawing of permafrost has also more disastrous effects..=the melting of the permafrost could reinforce global warming by methane emissions (those are greenhouse gases themselves). However it could also weaken it..because it also leads to more plant growth and the expansion of shrubs and taiga.. plants “absorb” carbon dioxide.. and thus lowers the strength of the greenhouse effect. What is permafrost?=permafrost is ground which is permanently frosted. In practice, this is defined as below zero for two or more years. Where is permafrost primarily found?=Permafrost is primarily found in the arctic and the subarctic, but is also present in alpine regions at high altitudes and even in the sea in polar regions where it is a relic (grozen ground which became submerged because of the sea level rise after the end of the last ice age. There are 4 types of permafrost..=continous, discontinous, sporadic and isolated.. (they are defined by the amount of permafrost in an area What is continous permafrost?=if permafrost underlies more than 90 percent of an area it is continuous What is discontinuous permafrost?=if permafrost underlies between 50 and 90 percent of an area What is sporadic permafrost?=if permafrost underlies between 10 and 50 percent of an area What is isolated permafrost?=if permafrost underlies under 10 percent of an area How much percent covers the Northern Hemisphere in permafrost?=about 24 percent. What is the active layer of permafrost?=almost always an active layer lies on top of the permafrost, this is a thin layer of ground, measuring 10 centimetre up to 1 metre deep, which thaws every year in summer. Nearly all the action such as plant growth and microbial activity happens in this very layer. Under the active layer how much in depth can range the inactive permafrost?=under the active layer, the inactive permafrost can range from 1 metre to 1700 metre deep. Why is the permafrost thawing?=due to global warming On average how much has risen the temperature in the Arctic?=on average with 1 degree celsius but in certain areas such as Alaska and Canada this increase has been 3 to 4 degrees over the past century. ›› effects›› thawing of permafrost over the whole arctic. Example thawing of permafrost=in alaska e.g. 31 percent of the permafrost was partially degraded and 4 percent disappeared completely since the 19th century. Is there only the thawing of permafrost?=no. apart from the decrease in surface, the thawing of permafrost can also be seen in the increase of the active layer. (permafrost melts and becomes the active layer..; Sweden, Siberia and Alaska) How are the projections of permafrost thawing?=they are bleak. Currently, permafrost covers an area of 10.5 million square kilomteres, but before 2100, the projected area is only 1 million square kilometres (census; 47 to 61 percent of the permafrost will be degraded). What are the consequences of thawing permafrost?=if the permafrost has thawed, it leaves thermokarst behind (an irregular surface of hollows and bumps) this themokarst can severly (1) damage infrastructure… (e.g. road crack and become bumpy, railway tracks and oil pipelines break and airfields become unusable. (2) it can also damage construction (e.g. Yakutsk, 300 buildings have collapsed due to thermokarst), (3) burial sites of reindeer all over SIberia are uncovered, potentially releasing diseases such as anthrax or smallpox (e.g. Yamal peninsula killing one boy) (small positive side.. it also uncovers many uniqueley preserved mummified animals such as mammoths..).. (4) it can also lead to many unwanted geological effects ›› permafrosts holds rocks together, when gone, its loss can lead to landslides.. (5) it can lead to lakes drying up › permafrost is impermeable to water so when it thaws the lake on top seeps away through the loose ground Tipping point and thawing permafrost?=stored in the permarost is a massive amount of organic matter (1700 billion tons of organic carbon) › the thaw could open the door for microbes to start decomosing this matter producing carbon dioxide and methane in the process ›› this would reinforce global warming ›› higher temperatures ›› more thawing. HOWEVER IT ALSO LEADS TO THE INCREASE IN PLANT GROWTH ›› plants take carbon dioxide from the air and store it ›› leads to LOWER temperatures ›› permafrost FREEZING again.. Which of the feedbacks are dominant, the positive feedback of exposing of carbon dioxide and methane or the negative feedback of the increase of plant growth?=plants growth could also have warming effects. Permafrost is often covered in snow of ice and as a consequence has a high albedo ›› reflecting much (light and..) warmth! One study even estimates that the expansion could amplify heating because of lower albedo by two to seven times. ALSO there is the increase in tundra fires ›› produces massive amounts of greenhouse gases by burning organic matter. [In conclusion, an increase in plant growth due to permafrost thaw could well have a warming effect because of the lower albedo and the increase in tundra fires on the climate, instead of a cooling effect. Conclusion thawing of permafrost?=in conclusion, permafrost is thawinf rapidly across the arctic. This has many negative consequences: infrastructure and construction is heavily affected by it, potential dangerous landslides, tundra fires and infectious diseases become more common (e.g. anthrax). THE BIGGEST CONSEQUENCE is the effect on the climate, namely the increase in warming. Increased plant growth is most probably not able to compensate for an increase in the release of greenhouse gases. Namely, it could also amplify warming. THE PERMAFROST THAW COULD THUS WELL BE A TIPPING POINT THAT IS WHY WE MUST TRY TO STOP IT SO THE PERMAFROST CAN REMAIN PERMANENT History and rabies in the arctic=not well known. it was only after 1945 that knowledge surrounding rabies started increasing. Before that there are stories in Canadian folklore about rabies-like diseases that were transmitted by arctic foxes to dogs and people. Rabies like epidemics among sledge dogs have also been described the last 150 years in Greenland and until the 1960s when the dog vaccination started this was a huge setback and problem for the Inuit of Greenland who relied on the dogs for transport and hunting. In recent years, how is rabies in the arctic doing?=in recent years there have been no large outbreaks of the rabies virus among dogs in the Arctic, nonetheless rabies is a deadly virus and thus it is important to know about the impacts of the rabies virus in the Arctic and the possible solutions against it. What is rabies?=Arctic rabies is an endemic virus throughout most parts of the Arctic. We see it in Alaska, Canada, northern Russia, Greenland and even on Svalbard. Do we have an indication of the rabies virus everywhere?=no. for example not in norway, finland and sweden at this moment even though the northern parts of these countries are part of the Arctic ›› most likely due to the fact that the arctic fox is an endagered species in these countries. Why is the rabies virus not prevalent in countries such as norway and sweden?=between 1998 and 2008 only 241 animals were registered in norway and sweden. In the year 2009 the Arctic fox seemed to be completely absent in Norway as there were zero registered ›› probably due to the collapse of the small rodent populations on which the Arctic fox feeds ›› because of this low (to no) number of Arctic foxes, they are most likely not able to spread the virus around and thus the virus is not prevalent in these countries. Who is the main carrier of Arctic rabies?=the main carrier is the Arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus) › so when the fox population is high the chance (!..) that Arctic rabies spreads is higher than with a smaller population. Arctic foxes population cycle (in relation to Arctic rabies)=these populations are usually every 3-4 years and follow the periodical increases of microtine rodents (such as the lemming) populations. What is the incubation period of rabies?=the incubation period (time between infection and first symptoms) makes it possible for them to transmit it to other animals or humans, this period can namely range between 8 days up till 6 months and due to the large distances that Arctic foxes travel they can transmit the virus to a lot of other foxes and animals (fox caribou reindeer polar bears) ›› even though it can take up to 6 months before the virus will become active in the host’s body it will only take around 2 days before the Arctic fox dies of the virus when it does. How does the behaviour changes of Arctic foxes, when infected by Arctic rabies?=an infected Arctic fox will exhibit different behavior compared to one that has not been infected. The Arctic fox is naturally timid making it avoid human interaction in general but when they are infected they lose this timidity and it may no longer avoid human interaction. ›› this increases the risk of being infected for humans and their dogs as as the behavior of an Arctic fox becomes aggressive when infected. Do human cases of rabies in the Arctic occur often? why?=no, the do not appear often. Several reasons for this; first is the lack of facilities that is able to diagnose rabies, (2) becuase it is so cold in the Arctic and thus the clothes the people wear protect them aginast bites and possible infection, (3) people are possibly resistant to the virus Are there severe human cases of rabies infections?=not many. But in 1960 a 4 year old girl died in Greenland, more cases in Arctic russia (1982, 3x 1987, 1998) ›› however only the person from 1998 died TO THE VIRUS. What is one of the reasons for the low numbers of affected humans and rabies?= that people living there have become naturally resistant over time by handling animals that are infected.. Rabies is not very common in arctic humans, is it dangerous really?=well it does have a bigger impact on the natural wildlife where animals die of rabies every year but it does not have an effect on domesticated animals anymore such as dog teams due to VACCINATION. Solutions for Arctic rabies?= The main method to combat Arctic rabies has been by using bait vaccination and oral vaccination. Bait vaccination is when vaccine is put into bait which the animal the arctic fox in this case will eat and thus vaccinate itself by eating the bait. Oral vaccination is done when Arctic foxes are captures which then results in the vaccine being orally administered. Successful cases of rabies solutions?=in central europe, finland and canada (bait vaccination). Oral vaccination has also been successful in esp. Alaska. What are the main problems of vaccines for rabies?=it is weakened by frozen conditions meaning that when it freezes inside bait it will be less effective. Nonetheless this method has been successful already and will most likely be continued to be employed. Conclusions Arctic rabies?=the main carrier of the rabies virus is the Arctic fox (in the Arctic) due to its long distance movements it is able to spread the virus to a lot of other animals such as red foxes caribou reindeer and even polar bears. It is also able to spread the virus to humans but this seems to not be very lethal except for a few cases in the past. Nonetheless public health concerns are still there and Arctic rabies has been combated using the methods bait vaccination and oral vaccination to vaccinate Arctic foxes which has shown to be successful. How is the aurora in the north called?=Aurora borealis How is the aurora in the south called?=Aurora australis What kind of colors do the auroras have?=colors like green, red and purple Did the earliest inhabitants know where the auroras came from?=no, it was unknown for them how the northern lights originated. A supernatural explanation was used to interpret this wonder. What causes the aurora on earth?=solar wind in combination with coronal mass ejections. protons and electrons (positively and negatively charged sub-atomic particles) are disrupted from the present helium and hydrogen atoms due to enourmous heat from the sun and then these protons and electrons form the solar wind › they can travel into space in the form of plasma (electrically charged gas). Does solar wind directly result in a visible aurora?=though the normal level of solar wind measures 1 billion kg of matter send to space per second, this is not enough to result in a visible aurora› this only occurs when a coronal mass ejection happens in the corona. How can coronal mass ejections be described? (needed with solarwind for visible auroras)=as occasional solar storms. A much larger mass of plasma is emitted by the sun, compared to the normal solar wind (1013 kg of plasma). Can the solar wind reach the earth directly?=no, it is blocked by the magnetosphere (formed by the earth’s magnetic field, vital for life on earth as it blocks solar and cosmic radiation). Can we “see” the force of the solar wind?=yes, indirectly. At the side of the earth that is facing the sun, the magnetosphere is compressed due to the pressure of the solar wind. What happens to the magnetosphere in case of coronal mass ejections?=then the magnetosphere cannot deflect the plasma as it is overwhelmed › the plasma can thus break through. What is the auroral oval?=when electrons and protons enter the atmosphere, they move to the poles but do not accumulate exactly at the magnetic pole › instead they are concentrated in a ring shape around the magnetic pole (generally located 60 degrees South or North from the equator). How does the visible light of the aurora come about?=as the protons and electrons enther the upper layer of the atmosphere (ionosphere) they collide with the present gas atoms (mostly oxygen and nitrogen) › during collision the oxygen and nitrogen atoms absorb part of the protons and electrons kinetic energy › this energy has to be released somehow › this is done by emitting a photon (a small package of energy).. IN THE FORM OF LIGHT. What is the aurora light really?=the release of kinetic energy (after the gas atoms have collided with the protons and electrons).= What colors does oxygen mostly emit after colliding with protons and electrons/solar wind?=photons that produce green and red light (90-130 km above sea level) What colors does nitrogen emit after colliding with protons and electrons/solar wind?=photons that produce blue and deep red light (90-130 km above sea level) What influences the visibility of the auroras?=a lot of factors really.The occurrence depends on the frequency of coronal mass ejections, in turn this is dependent on the solar cycle (a cycle with a period of 11 years) in which the amount of sun spots vary in number. Other factors may be cloud cover and moon phase. Conclusion aurora borealis and australis=The mechanism that causes the auroras › at the solar surface solar wind is produced consisting of protons and electrons › this solar wind moves into space in the form of plasma › in combination with the coronal mass ejection the solar wind gets into the magnetosphere (reach ionosphere) › they accumulate around the aurora ovals › collide with gas atoms such as oxygen (green and red) and nitrogen (blue and deep red) › these gas atoms absorb kinetic energy and release this energy in the form of light › THIS VERY LIGHT IS CALLED THE AURORA (australis/borealis). Where do the Saami live?=in northern scandinavia, coverin Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia. They are the original inhabitants of Lapland and were also called “Laps”. Have the Saami been surpressed for a long time?=yes. Ever since 900 AD they were submissive to various countries, they had to pay taxes and fines in form of furs and other materials. TODAY the Saami are a recognized ethnic group in all these four countries (NORWAY SWEDEN FINLAND RUSSIA; 50.000 people). In norway sweden finland the Saami een have their own pariament › they can preserve their own culture and traditions in this way › a BIG PART of these traditions is the Saami language. What is the Saami language really?=the Saami language is a Finno-Ugric (a traditional grouping of all languages in the Uralic language family except the Samoyedic languages) › This group also uncludes finnish estonian hungarian and multiple smaller languages which are not spoken anymore today. Is the Saami language ONE language?=no. The Saami language actually exists out of several languages. All combined the Saami language is spoken by about 20.000 Saami people. How many Saami languages are there?=there are three different Saami languages; North Western, South Western and Eastern Saami. These 3 languases are subsequently divided in multiple dialects. North Western Saami is spoken by..=Pite, Lule and nothern saami which live in sweden norway and finland (17.000 people, most spoken Saami) South Western Saami is spoken by..=the south- and ume saami which live in norway and sweden (400, least spoken Saami) Eastern Saami is spoken by..=Inari Skolt Akkala Kildin and Ter Saami.. (only language also spoken in Russia, about 1000-1100 Saami people). Do the different Saami language differ a lot from each other?=yes. There are 3 main languages (NW-SW-E Saami) each with multiple dialects. Some of these dialects however can also be seen as different languages because they differ in vocabulary and grammar › different Saami people from different regions cannot understand each other! Give an example of the differences between Saami languages=English fish is in north saami guolli, in inari saami kyeli and in skolt saami kue’ll What is one of the most fascinating thing of the Saami language (and other languages)?=the variety of words for things like snow, ice and reindeer for example (there are up to a thousand words for snow or ice in Saami language). What are different ways to say snow in Saami?=the different words are based on layers of snow and ice and also on different seasons wherein it appears › a patch of snow in general is called muohta, in spring or summer a patch of snow is called jassa. ALSO snow where reindeer can find food is ealát.. Why do you think the Saami have different words for (almost) the same thing like snow, ice and reindeer?=They influence their ives like nothing else, in other words, they play a big role in the lives of Arctic (Saami) people.
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